NOTE: These summaries were written by SVPEP and are based on the original papers. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona.

Acierno, R., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., & Stark-Riemer, W. (2003). Assessing elder victimization: Demonstration of a methodology. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 38, 644-653.

New methodology to assess interpersonal violence has incorporated contextually orienting preface statements and specific behavioral descriptions of victimization events. This methodology, however, has been limited to younger populations and has not been used in assessing elder victimization. The purposes of this study were to assess the effectiveness of the methodology with elderly individuals; measure lifespan physical, sexual, and emotional violence victimization by familial and non-familial perpetrators; assess victim psychopathology; and compare the impact of an in-person interview format with that of a telephone interview format. Participants (N = 106) were 55 to 85 years of age. The sample consisted of both police-referred victims (n = 47) of various crimes, as well as randomly selected individuals from telephone directories (n = 59). Participants were randomly selected to be interviewed in-person or by telephone. Each participant was administered a modified version of the National Women’s Study survey. The survey assessed interpersonal violence, psychopathology, and categorical independent variables (sample source and interview methodology type). Results showed that among non-police referred participants, the survey methodology proved sensitive in identifying instances of interpersonal violence. Among all participants, results indicated that interview format did not influence rates of detection for recent and distant victimization and psychopathology. The only differences noted by interview format were that telephone interviews were performed more quickly and interview safety was ranked higher than within in-person interviews. Furthermore, informal queries of participants revealed that the telephone format was preferable for a number of reasons, such as comfort level in disclosure and interviewer and victim safety. In concluding, the authors noted possible biases in the study, among which included the small sample size due to the nature of the project (i.e., a pilot feasibility demonstration project).

Topics: Disclosure; elderly; evaluation

Anderson, L., Stoelb, M. P., Duggan, P., Hieger, B., Kling, K. H., & Payne, J. P. (1998). The effectiveness of two types of rape prevention programs in changing the rape-supportive attitudes of college students. Journal of College Student Development, 39, 131-142.

Examined the effectiveness of two rape prevention programs that aimed to change rape-supportive attitudes among college students. As such, 215 undergraduates were assigned to one of three approaches: an interactive "talk show" intervention, a videotaped intervention, or a nontreatment control group. Rape-supportive attitudes were measured utilizing rape myth acceptance and attitudes toward rape scales. Measurements were obtained before the interventions, at posttest (immediately following the intervention), and 7 weeks after the intervention. Results indicate that both interventions reduced rape-supportive attitudes at posttest, but attitudes approached pre-intervention levels by 7 weeks. Implications for future rape prevention interventions are discussed.

Topics: Curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Anderson, L. A., & Whiston, S. C. (2005). Sexual assault education programs: A meta-analytic examination of their effectiveness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 374-388.

The authors conducted an analysis of the effectiveness of sexual assault education programs on college campuses. The study was unique because it examined a wide variety of outcomes and explored the impact of several program factors on program effectiveness. Meta-analyses were conducted with 69 studies and 102 treatment interventions. The results showed that sexual assault programs influenced the most positive change in rape knowledge. The programs had a small, but positive influence on rape attitudes. They had a smaller impact on behavioral intentions, rape-related attitudes, and incidence of sexual assault and no impact on rape empathy and rape awareness behaviors. Several factors were associated with program effectiveness including length of the intervention, type of presenter, program content, type of audience, and gender of audience. Implications for practice and research are presented.

Topics: College; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Anderson, N. L. R., Uman, G. C., Keenan, C. K., Koniak-Griffin, D., et al. (1996).The process of instrument development for ethnically diverse early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 16, 427-450.

Describes the development of an evaluation instrument used to assess major content areas in the Reaching Adolescents and Parents (RAP) curriculum – a community-based family education intervention delivered to ethnically diverse communities in Los Angeles County. The authors discuss the challenges associated with creating a valid, reliable, and relevant tool that is audience-appropriate. The wording, format, and question content were structured to be appropriate for ages 10–14 years. The tool was developed using focus groups and pilot-testing.

Topics: Curriculum; evaluation; racial/ethnic differences

Avery-Leaf, S., Cascardi, M., O’Leary, K. D., & Cano, A. (1997). Efficacy of a dating violence prevention program on attitudes justifying aggression. Journal of Adolescent Health, 21, 11-17.

This paper discusses the value of a five-session dating violence prevention curriculum by comparing pre- and posttreatment differences in attitudes concerning dating violence among 193 high school students. Students taking health classes were randomly assigned either to the treatment condition or the control condition. Students in the treatment condition were exposed to a communication skills-based violence prevention program designed to address courtship aggression as a social and psychological issue. The Modified Conflict Tactics scale (MCTS), the Justification of Interpersonal Violence questionnaire (AIV), the Justification of Dating Jealousy and Violence scale (JDV), and the Social Desirability scale (SDS) were administered to all participants. Results revealed that within the treatment group there were significant changes in attitudes concerning dating aggression. Specifically, attitudes concerning justification of male-to-female dating aggression and female-to-male dating aggression were affected in that treatment subjects were less accepting of dating violence during an argument at the postprogram evaluation stage. The authors suggest that more sensitive measures of attitudes concerning dating violence (i.e., AIV and JDV) may be necessary since one-half to two-thirds of the students during the preprogram assessment already felt that physical violence is never justifiable during an argument. Overall, changes in attitudes among participants suggest that this type of curriculum may be a useful tool for prevention of dating aggression.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Basile, K. C., Lang, K. S., Bartenfeld, T. A., & Clinton-Sherrod, M. (2005). Evaluability assessment of the rape prevention and education program: Summary of findings and recommendations. Journal of Women’s Health, 14, 201-207.

This article provides a baseline evaluation of the CDC’s Rape Prevention and Education (RPE) Program by drawing upon the evaluability assessment approach, as designed by Wholey (1979) and Rutman (1980). As such, the assessment discussed herein measured goals and objectives of the RPE grant, the use of funds, and barriers impacting the implementation of the grant. The primary goal of the program includes the reduction of sexual assault rates as initiated through educational and awareness-enhancing programs. Funds were found to be most often allocated toward trainings and informational materials, with prevention programs and evaluation activities also prominent. The barrier cited by 87% of respondents centered around community reactions to issues of sexual violence. Recommendations highlighted performance measures and systematic data collection, as well as technical assistance, training, strategic planning, and evaluability.

Topics: Evaluation; prevention; victim services

Binder, R. L., & McNiel, D. E. (1987). Evaluation of a school-based sexual abuse prevention program: Cognitive and emotional effects. Child Abuse & Neglect, 11, 497-506.

A 2-hour sexual abuse prevention workshop was presented to 88 children, 60 parents, and 12 teachers. Pretest-posttest questionnaires were administered to assess children's level of emotional distress (ED) and knowledge about sexual abuse prevention. The teachers completed questionnaires about participants’ level of ED approximately 2 weeks after the program. Comparison of participants’ knowledge before and after the program showed increases in knowledge about strategies for dealing with potential abuse. Additionally, children reported that the program made them feel safer and more confident in their ability to protect themselves.

Topics: Evaluation; prevention

Campbell, R., Dorey, H., Naegeli, M., Grubstein, L. K., Bennett, K. K., Bonter, F., et al. (2004). An empowerment evaluation model for sexual assault programs: Empirical evidence of effectiveness. American Journal of Community Psychology, 34, 251-262.

This paper describes the Sexual Assault and Rape Prevention (SARP) Evaluation Project that was designed to provide evaluation training and consultation to all state-funded rape prevention and victim services programs in Michigan. The SARP project was a community-based collaboration that utilized an empowerment evaluation approach. A review of the empowerment evaluation literature is provided and effectiveness of the SARP project is examined. Results suggested that the evaluation model was effective in assisting the majority of rape prevention and victim services programs develop, implement, and sustain evaluation activities. Limitations of an empowerment evaluation approach are discussed.

Topics: Evaluation; prevention; victim services

Cook, T. J., Schmid, T. L., Braddy, B. A., & Orenstein, D. (1992). Evaluating community-based program impacts. Journal of Health Education, 23, 183-186.

This study outlines process evaluation methodology that focuses on community level variables in assessing program effects. Recommendations include tracking the level of exposure to media campaigns and measuring community penetration.

Topics: Community attitudes/responses; evaluation

Cousins, J. B., & Leithwood, K. A. (1986). Current empirical research on evaluation utilization. Review of Educational Research, 56, 331-364.

This article reviews research on the use of evaluation results. Sixty-five studies in education, mental health, and social services are discussed in terms of their methodology and the relationships between independent and dependent variables. The authors describe 12 factors associated with evaluation implementation, decision making, and policy setting.

Topics: Evaluation

DeKeseredy, W. S. (2000). Current controversies on defining nonlethal violence against women in intimate heterosexual relationships: Empirical implications. Violence Against Women, 6(7), 728-746.

The author indicates that there is wide spread disagreement about how partner violence should be defined and that these differences lead to a variety of problems with research (including disclosure) and policy. The author also describes currently used definitions and provides suggestions for achieving agreement in defining nonlethal violence against women in heterosexual relationships.

Topics: Disclosure; evaluation

Earle, J. P. (1996). Acquaintance rape workshops: Their effectiveness in changing the attitudes of first year college men. National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, 34(1), 2-18.

This study looks at the effect of three different types of acquaintance rape prevention programs on the attitudes concerning the sexual assault of women among first year college men from four different colleges. The study found that treatment in small, single groups, with peer facilitation and interactive techniques, resulted in the largest positive change in attitude regarding traditional women's roles in the home and workplace and motives for rape. No change was noted in attitudes toward the perceived severity of the crime. This study has implications for the evaluation of current theories of educating first year college men on acquaintance rape.

Topics: College; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Finkelhor, D., Asdigian, N., & Dziuba-Leatherman, J. (1994). The effectiveness of victimization prevention instruction: An evaluation of children’s responses to actual threats and assaults. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19, 141-153.

This study examined the effectiveness of school-based prevention instruction in improving children’s responses to victimization. Using telephone interviews with 2,000 youths and their caretakers, the authors asked the participants about school-based prevention education programs present at their schools, the content of the programs, parental instruction, specific knowledge about sexual abuse issues, victimization, self-protection strategies, and self-perceived efficacy in dealing with confrontations. Analyses of the interviews revealed that prevention instruction programs judged to be comprehensive had small but positive effects. Youths exposed to these programs were more likely to use self-protection strategies during a confrontation, were more likely to feel successful in doing so, and were more likely to disclose victimization attempts. However, they experienced more injuries during sexual assaults. In contrast, children with more comprehensive parental instruction experienced less injuries during assaults. In addition, comprehensive parental instruction was also associated with positive effects on knowledge, the likelihood of disclosure, and the use of preferred self-protection strategies. The authors conclude by suggesting that not only is parental instruction notably a necessity but that school-based prevention programs may need to reassess the aggressive resistance tactics they teach youths and to focus instead on preventing injuries, not just victimization.

Topics: Curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Foshee, V., Bauman, K. E., Arriaga, X. B., Helms R. W., Koch, G. G., & Linder, G. F. (1998). An evaluation of Safe Dates, an adolescent dating violence prevention program. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 45-50.

Fourteen public schools in a rural county were randomly assigned to treatment or control conditions. Of the students involved, 1,886 subjects completed pretest and 1,700 subjects completed posttest measures. Members of the treatment group took part in the "Safe Dates" school curriculum and community activities. Those in the control schools were only presented with community activities. At the time of the posttest, those in the treatment schools reported less psychological abuse, less sexual violence, and less violence perpetrated against the current dating partner than those in control schools. Those reporting no dating violence at Time 1 indicated there was less initiation of abuse in treatment than in control schools at Time 2. Those reporting dating violence at Time 1 indicated there was less psychological abuse and sexual violence perpetration occurring in treatment schools post intervention. The problems associated with collecting posttest data directly after an intervention are discussed. The authors indicate that they are in the process of collecting data for a 1-year follow-up to address these limitations.

Topics: Adolescent/High school; curriculum; evaluation

Foshee, V. A., Bauman, K. E., Greene, W. F., Koch, G. G., Linder, G. F., & MacDougall, J. E. (2000). The Safe Dates program: 1-year follow-up results. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1619-1622. [Posted February 2008]

Key Points: One year after the implementation of a dating violence prevention program, no difference in perpetration or victimization was found between the treatment and control groups.

Summary: Fourteen schools in a rural North Carolina county were randomly assigned to a group of seven control schools and seven treatment schools. Seventh and eighth grade students in the treatment schools (n=1886) participated in the Safe Dates project. Project activities included watching a play, attending ten 45-minute educational sessions, and a poster contest. Providers in the community were also trained in responding to adolescent dating violence.

Students completed a survey at baseline and about one month after the end of the program. (See Foshee et al., 1998.) At the one-year follow-up (n=1603), students in the treatment group maintained attitudes less supportive of dating violence. However, there were no significant differences between the treatment and control groups in being a victim or perpetrator of dating violence.

The authors suggest several reasons for the lack of significant findings, and point out that evaluations of other prevention programs have found similar patterns of maintenance of cognitive shifts but not behavior changes. Longer term effects of the program were the basis for another article (see Foshee, et al., 2004).

Limitations: The intervention was conducted in one rural county, and results may not be generalizable to other areas of the US.

Topics: Adolescent/High school; evaluation; prevention

Foshee, V. A., Bauman, K. E., Ennett, S. T., Linder, G. F., Benefield, T., & Suchindran, C. (2004). Assessing the long-term effects of the Safe Dates program and a booster in preventing and reducing adolescent dating violence victimization and perpetration. American Journal of Public Health, 94, 619-624. [Posted February 2008]

Key Points: Four years after receiving the Safe Dates program, adolescents were less likely to perpetrate or be victims of dating violence. A booster administered two years after the program did not make a difference.

Summary: Ten schools in a rural North Carolina county were randomly assigned to receive the Safe Dates program or to control conditions. Seventh and eighth grade students in the treatment schools (n=1886) participated in the Safe Dates project.

Students completed a survey at baseline, about one month after the end of the program, and then yearly for four years. (See Foshee et al., 1998, for one-month results, and Foshee, et al., 2000, for one-year results.)

After three years, a randomly selected group of students were given a booster (an 11-page newsletter and a follow-up phone call). One year later, all three study groups—controls, those who received Safe Dates only, and those who also received the booster—were compared on victimization and perpetration outcomes. Students who participated in Safe Dates had significantly lower victimization and perpetration rates than those in the control group. The rates reported by the booster group rates were similar to those reported by the Safe Dates-only group.

The authors concluded that the Safe Dates program significantly reduced adolescent dating violence over the long term, but that the booster was not effective.

Limitations: The intervention was conducted in one rural county, and results may not be generalizable to areas with different demographics. All data was self-reported by participants, and may be subject to social desirability effects.

Topics: Adolescent/High school; evaluation; prevention

 

Frazier, P., Valtinson, G., & Candell, S. (1994). Evaluation of a coeducational interactive rape prevention program. Journal of Counseling & Development, 73, 153-158.

This study is an evaluation of a coeducational, acquaintance-rape prevention program delivered to 117 sorority and 75 fraternity members (aged 19-27 years) who were randomly assigned to the treatment and control group conditions. Participants completed pretest, posttest, and 1-month follow-up measures concerning attitudes toward gender roles, dating behaviors, and sexual behaviors. Participants also appraised how much they learned from the program. Those who participated in the program endorsed fewer attitudes and beliefs associated with acquaintance rape than did members of the control group and were more likely to agree with statements that endorsed respect and equality, assertive communication, and safety precautions for women immediately following the program. However, the treatment group did not differ from the control group at the 1-month follow-up.

Topics: Evaluation; fraternities/sororities

Gidycz, C., Rich, C., Orchowski, L., King, C., & Miller, A. (2006). The evaluation of a sexual assault self-defense and risk-reduction program for college women: A prospective study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 173-186. [Posted October 2006]

Key Points: College women who participated in a sexual assault risk-reduction program were more likely to practice protective behaviors than women who did not participate. Neither program participation nor practicing protective behaviors made a difference in rates of sexual victimization over a 6-month follow-up period.

Summary: Researchers examined changes in protective behaviors, sexual communication, and self-efficacy among college women participating in a sexual assault avoidance program (n=234) compared with a control group (n=266). The seven-hour skills-building program included lecture, video, group discussion, role play, and physical self-defense techniques. Three months later, a 1-½ hour “booster” session was given. Only self-protective behaviors increased over time more among program participants compared with the control group. About the same number of women in both groups reported experiencing moderate or severe victimization during the follow-up period. Among those who were victimized, program participants were more likely to blame the perpetrator. Researchers found that the only factor associated with being victimized during the follow-up period was a history of adolescent victimization.

Limits of the study include the small sample size. Program participants may have identified a broader range of experiences as sexual victimization than non-participants.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; college; evaluation

Greene, J. C. (1987). Justifying conclusions in naturalistic evaluations: A practical perspective. Evaluation & Program Planning, 10, 325-333.

Describes a number of approaches to program evaluation that emphasize utility, credibility, and participatory process. Evaluation methods and evaluator roles are discussed.

Topics: Evaluation

Hanson, K. A., & Gidycz, C.A. (1993). Evaluation of a sexual assault prevention program. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 61, 1046-1052.

This article presents the results of a sexual assault prevention program evaluation. Female college students (N = 360) participated in the study; 181 were assigned to the treatment group and 165 were assigned to the control group. The results indicated that the program was effective in decreasing the incidence of sexual assault for women without a sexual assault history but was not effective in decreasing rates of sexual assault for women with sexual assault histories. Those participating in the treatment group reported decreases in dating behaviors found to be associated with acquaintance rape and increases in knowledge about sexual assault. Implications are discussed.

Topics: College; curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Heppner, M. J, Humphrey, C. F., Hillenbrand-Gunn, T. L, & DeBord, K. A. (1995). The differential effects of rape prevention programming on attitudes, behavior, and knowledge. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 508-518.

This study evaluates how program type affects the processing of rape prevention messages targeting, attitudes, knowledge, behaviors, and change. Participants (N = 258) were assigned to one of three conditions: 1) didactic-video program, 2) interactive drama intervention, or 3) nontreatment control. Results show that both the interactive drama and the didactic-video intervention were more effective than the control at altering men's rape myth acceptance at 1-month post intervention. Change, however, was not stable; both interventions had rebounding scores on rape attitudes. Participants in the interactive drama condition were more able to identify consent versus coercion and demonstrate differences on behavioral indicators.

Topics: Evaluation; prevention

Hilton, N. Z., Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., Krans, T. S., & Lavigne, S. E. (1998). Antiviolence education in high schools: Implementation and evaluation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 726-742.

This study examined the effects of a knowledge-based intervention administered to 350 eleventh grade students. Variables addressed included a measure of knowledge retained from the intervention, a measure of date rape attitudes, and a measure of self-reported physical and sexual aggression perpetrated by peers. Students chose to attend two 1-hour workshops from six available workshops. Analysis of their responses revealed results that may contribute toward improvements in future school-based prevention education programs. For example, classroom workshops were able to convey the most information. However, attrition of membership at the workshops, especially by students who scored low during the pretest, may account for the higher scores during the posttest phase. As such, the authors suggest that antiviolence education in high schools ought to involve training students to recognize warning signs of violence, provide them with guidance for terminating violent relationships, and aim to improve the selection of high-risk students for treatment.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; curriculum; evaluation; risk

Holcomb, D. R., Sarvela, P. D., Sondag, K. A., & Holcomb, L. H. (1993). An evaluation of a mixed-gender date rape prevention workshop. Journal of American College Health, 41, 159-164.

The authors used a randomized, posttest-only experimental design (the 25-item Date Rape Attitudes Survey) to compare the date-rape (DRP) attitudes of 163 university students exposed to a mixed-gender DRP workshop with the DRP attitudes of 168 students who were not exposed. Three hypotheses were tested with the following results: (1) men reported attitudes that were more tolerant of DRP than those of women (i.e., the men were more likely to condone DRP); (2) subjects in the control group reported attitudes that were more tolerant of DRP than those reported by subjects in the treatment group; and (3) men exhibited a greater effect from the program than did the women.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Holcomb, D. R., Sondag, K. A., & Holcomb, L. C. H. (1993). Healthy dating: A mixed-gender date rape workshop. College Health, 41, 155-157.

This article describes a mixed-gender workshop designed to promote interactive discussion and increase awareness on the issue of date rape. A description of the date rape workshop consensual sex scenario and the recommendations for men and women implemented in the workshop are both included. Participants included 330 men and 314 women of which only 10.2% of the men and 8.2% of the women stated they were uncomfortable discussing date rape in a mixed-gender setting.

Topics: College; curriculum; evaluation

Israel, B. A., Cummings, K. M., Dignan, M. B., Heaney, C. A., Perales, D. P., Simons-Morton, B. G., & Zimmerman, M. A. (1995). Evaluation of health education programs: Current assessment and future directions. Health Education Quarterly, 22, 364-389.

These authors discuss evaluation options for health education interventions. Design issues and options are reviewed and approaches to evaluation are described, emphasizing those shown to be effective. Methods and implications for future evaluations are reviewed and recommendations are provided for evaluation designs, data collection methods, and roles.

Topics: Evaluation

Kelley, M. L., Schwerin, M. J., Farrar, K. L., & Lane, M. E. (2005). An evaluation of a sexual assault prevention and advocacy program for U.S. navy personnel. Military Medicine, 170, 320-326.

In response to the high rates of sexual victimization, the Navy has implemented the Sexual Assault Victim Intervention program (SAVI). SAVI provides training to increase sexual assault awareness and advocacy to guide survivors through medical, legal, and investigative systems. The study examined the effectiveness of the SAVI program. Nineteen SAVI programs participated in the study and 416 completed surveys were analyzed. The majority of participants were active duty Navy service members. Majority of participants reported that the quality of the prevention training and advocacy services were better or much better than expected (64% and 83%, respectively). Most participants (87%) indicated that the advocacy services helped them cope with sexual assault. More than 95% of the individuals from the prevention training and the advocacy services agreed or strongly agreed that the program enhanced the health and safety of sailors and their families. Directions for future research are presented.

Topics: Evaluation; military; prevention

Kimerling, R., Street, A. E., Gima, K., & Smith, M.W. (2008).  Evaluation of universal screening for military-related sexual trauma.  Psychiatric Services, 59, 635-640. [Posted August 2008]
 
Key Points: Universal screening may play an important role in secondary prevention efforts for military sexual trauma. 

Summary:  In 2005, 33,259 women and 540,381 men were screened for military sexual trauma which the Veterans Health Administration refers to military sexual trauma as severe or threatening forms of sexual harassment and sexual assault sustained in military service.  The purpose of the study was to evaluate screening efforts and to explore if there was association with increased use of mental health services and sexual trauma screening.  Women and men who had positive screens had higher rates of post screen mental health treatment. The screens increased utilization of mental health services among individuals without a history of mental health treatment.

Limitations:  The study does not show a causal relationship between screening and use of mental health services. 

Topics: evaluation, medical response, military

Kuecker, T. (1998). An analysis of statewide sexual assault service providers. Violence and Intentional Injury Prevention Program, 1, 5 pages.

This report is a survey conducted by the Michigan Sexual Assault Surveillance System (SASS) as part of the Violence and Intentional Injury Prevention Program (VI2P2). It was conducted for the purpose of assessing how agencies and service providers who come into contact with survivors of sexual assault collect and manage their data. The surveillance aspect of the SASS involves focusing on issues such as incidence, prevalence, morbidity, mortality, and economic costs of sexual violence. This report outlines the responses of 69 of the 148 agencies and service providers contacted by the SASS team. Results show that more than two-thirds of the agencies surveyed have a systematic method for collecting data on sexual assault. However, only one-third of these agencies had access to e-mail or other Internet services and less than a third of them were judged to be technologically behind current standards. The SASS team created a website for the agencies that can assist them in accessing sexual assault data and SASS briefing reports.

Topics: Evaluation; prevalence; rape crisis centers

Lanier, C. A. (2001). Rape-accepting attitudes: Precursors to or consequences of forced sex. Violence Against Women, 7, 876-885. [Posted April 2007]

Key Points: Acceptance of rape myths predicted subsequent sexual aggression among a group of middle school and high school boys.

Summary: This study sought to answer the questions: does rape-myth acceptance precede perpetration of sexual violence, or does the perpetrator justify their actions by adopting rape-accepting attitudes?

Boys from 14 middle schools and high schools in rural North Carolina were surveyed. They were asked if they had ever forced a date to have sex or forced a date to do something sexual. They were also asked to rate their agreement with common rape myths. One year later, 851 boys completed a second survey. Those who were more accepting of rape myths initially were more likely to report perpetration. Perpetration did not result in increased acceptance of rape myths.

This study suggested that curriculum targeting rape myth-accepting attitudes accepting of rape myths may reduce forced sex by adolescent males.

Some limitations of this study include: boys may have been reluctant to self-identify as perpetrators, fearing that they could be identified; they may have indicated a lower acceptance of rape myths than they really felt; and they were not asked to define what “doing something sexual” meant to them.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; evaluation; myths/stereotypes; perpetration; prevention

Lanier, C. A., & Elliot, M. N. (1997). A new instrument for the evaluation of a date rape prevention program. Journal of College Student Development, 38, 673-676.

This article presents the results of a study of a new behavior scale designed specifically to evaluate the efficacy of date rape prevention programs. The sample included 436 college students who filled-out the College Date Rape Attitude and Behavior Survey (CDRABS). The survey contains 20 questions addressing attitudes and 7 questions addressing behaviors, all of which pertain to heterosexual date rape on campuses. Women had lower rape-supportive attitudes than men, suggesting convergent validity of this scale with other measures of rape-supportive attitudes. Significant correlations between certain attitude and behavior items indicate that the attitude scale may be predictive of rape-supportive behavior among men as well as predictive of women's self-reported high risk behaviors given certain attitudes toward sexual activity among the women. The authors propose that the CDRABS may be useful for measuring students' initial attitudes and behaviors as well as serving as an instrument in the evaluation of date rape prevention programs designed to enhance awareness of date rape prevention.

Topics: College; evaluation; male-female relations; prevention; risk

Lonsway, K. A., Klaw, E. L., Berg, D. R., Waldo, C. R., & Kothari, C. (1998). Beyond “no means no”: Outcomes of an intensive program to train peer facilitators for campus acquaintance rape education. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 73-92.

This study examined the effects of an intensive rape education program. Undergraduate participants enrolled in a semester long university course titled "Campus Acquaintance Rape Education" (CARE) which was designed to train peer facilitators to conduct rape education workshops. This group was compared to students enrolled in a general human sexuality course. Quantitative analysis of pre- and post-course responses suggest that comprehensive attitude change occurred for students in CARE but not for those in the human sexuality course. Follow-up investigations conducted two years after course participation revealed that CARE students were still less accepting of cultural rape myths than those in the human sexuality class. The authors suggest that sex education will be insufficient to prevent rape unless explicit attention is paid to issues of both gender inequality and sexual violence.

Topics: Curriculum; evaluation; prevention

Meraviglia, M. G., Becker, H., Rosenbluth, B., Sanchez, E., & Robertson, T.  (2003). The Expect Respect Project: Creating a positive elementary school climate.  Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 1347-1360. [Posted July 2008]

Key Points:  After participating in the Expect Respect Project, individuals showed an increase in awareness of bullying.  

Summary:  This article summarizes the evaluation results of the Expect Respect Project.  Expect Respect Project is a multi-level violence prevention program designed to reduce the incidence of bullying and sexual harassment in elementary schools.   During 1998 and 1999, six schools received the intervention and were matched with six schools that did not receive the intervention.  The intervention includes 5 sections; classroom curriculum, staff training, policy development, parent education, and support services.  Participants included students, parents, school administrators, principles, counselors, and fifth grade teachers.  Each participant completed pre and post-test surveys that consisted of questions surrounding knowledge, awareness, and attitudes of bullying and sexual harassment in elementary schools.  The Expect Respect Project increased student and staff knowledge of sexual harassment but did not show an increase in knowledge of bullying. Students felt if they reported bullying or sexual harassment.  In contrast, adults at school would ignore the inappropriate behavior while adults reported that they would respond by telling the bully to stop. 

Limitations:   The results were based on responses to hypothetical situations which make it difficult to ascertain how individuals may respond to inappropriate behaviors in real world situations or settings.

Topics:  curriculum, evaluation, harassment, prevention

Milhausen, R., McBride, K. & Jun, M. (2006). Evaluating a peer-led, theatrical sexual assault prevention program: How do we measure success? College Student Journal, 40, 316-328. [Posted October 2006]

Key Points: Sexual assault prevention programs that discuss ambiguous sexual situations must clearly emphasize the differences between consensual sex and rape, or risk unintentionally reinforcing rape myths.  

Summary: Researchers evaluated the success of a peer-led sexual assault prevention intervention. The program consists of a skit about a date that ended in a sexual encounter. The skit is followed by group discussion and education about sexual assault on campus.
Thirty-seven men and 37 women completed a pre- and post-test. Males were more likely than females to endorse rape-supportive myths both before and after. After the presentation, fewer males and females agreed with two measures of rape-myth acceptance, but both had a slight decrease in accepting that “No means stop.” This might be explained by ambiguity in the skit, and the researchers recommend making the point more clearly and strongly.

Researchers also looked for differences in results between two instruments: the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (RMAS) and the Sexual Beliefs Scale (SBS). Because no difference was found pre- and post-test on the RMAS, but the SBS measured differences in 3 of 5 subscales, researchers suggest that the SBS is a more useful tool.

Limits of the study include a small and non-random sample. It is not known if attitude changes lasted over time.

Topics: College; evaluation; myths/stereotypes

O'Donohue, W., Yeater, E. A., & Fanetti, M. (2003). Rape prevention with college males: The roles of rape myth acceptance, victim empathy, and outcome expectancies. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 513-531.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of individual differences in influencing the effects of rape prevention programs targeting men. One objective was to examine the association between the effects of anti-rape videotape content and men's sexual coercive histories. A second objective was to investigate the effects of the anti-rape videotape on men's sex-related alcohol expectancies. The sample consisted of 45 male undergraduate students. Twenty-two participants were categorized as sexually coercive and 23 participants were sexually noncoercive based on responses to a modified version of the Sexual Experiences Survey. Participants were randomly assigned to either the anti-rape videotape or control videotape condition. Effects of the anti-rape videotape on rape-myth acceptance and sex-related alcohol expectancies were influenced by men's coerciveness. Implications of the findings for rape prevention programs are presented.

Topics: Alcohol; college; evaluation; prevention

Pacifici, C., Stoolmiller, M., & Nelson, C. (2001). Evaluating a prevention program for teenagers on sexual coercion: A differential effectiveness approach. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 552-559. [Posted February 2008]

Key Points: A prevention program changed attitudes significantly in students with high initial levels of sexual coercion acceptance; change was not significant in students with low initial acceptance.

Summary: Students in two high schools in a midsize Pacific Northwest city participated in the study (n=458). They were randomly assigned to an intervention group that received 4 instruction sessions about sexual coercion and social skills or to a control group. Students in the intervention group were tested pre- and post-intervention; the same test was given to the control group at two different time points.

Comparing combined pre- and post-test scores showed no differences between groups. However, researchers found that students who had originally high coercion acceptance scores did show a significant decrease in scores after the intervention. In the analysis that combined all student scores, differences were masked by students with both low pre- and post- intervention coercion acceptance.

Because low baseline scores create a “floor effect,” the researchers recommended using this kind of differential analysis when evaluating the effectiveness of an intervention. 

Limitations: No long-term follow-up tests were administered, so it is not certain that the attitude changes would persist with time. The study did not measure coercive sexual behaviors.

Topics: Adolescent/High school; evaluation; prevention

Potter, R. H., Krider, J. E., & McMahon P. M. (2000). Examining elements of campus sexual violence policies: Is deterrence or health promotion favored? Violence Against Women, 6, 1345-1362.

The authors compare criminal justice and public health perspectives in order to understand sexual violence policies. The public health model focuses on prevention through health promotion, while the criminal justice model is based primarily on deterrence. Policies formulated under different theoretical perspectives are likely to have different implications and outcomes. This study focused on campus sexual violence policies from the two perspectives. Policies in a sample of 100 United States colleges and universities in 1998 were examined. The authors present a descriptive analysis of the types of sexual violence prevention programs and dissemination of knowledge about the policies, and then analyze the policy data utilizing content analytic techniques. They found that deterrence-based prevention efforts were most common, followed by risk- or opportunity-reduction approaches. The authors conclude by discussing the possible impact of campus sexual violence prevention efforts where the public health and criminal justice approaches are merged.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Schewe, P. A., & O'Donohue, W. (1996). Rape prevention with high-risk males: Short-term outcome of two interventions. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 25, 455-471.

This article discusses the development and evaluation of two interventions designed to reduce the amount of date rape attempted by male college students: (1) the Rape Supportive Cognition's (RSC) intervention, which targets commonly held false beliefs that promote or condone coercive sexual behavior; and (2) the Victim/Empathy Outcome Expectancies (VE/OE) intervention, which targets poor victim empathy and problematic rape outcome expectancies. Seventy-four high-risk subjects, as determined by scores on the Attraction to Sexual Aggression scale (ASA), were randomly assigned to one of the treatment groups or to a no-treatment control group. Treatment effects were assessed using subjects' pre- and posttest scores on the ASA, the Rape Myth Acceptance, the Acceptance of Interpersonal Violence, and the Adversarial Sexual Beliefs scales as well as subjects' posttest scores on the Rape Conformity Assessment. Results indicated that both treatments were significantly more effective than no treatment, with the RSC group showing clinically significant changes on three of the five dependent measures while the VE/OE group evidenced significant changes on only one measure.

Topics: College; evaluation; perpetration; prevention


Shapiro, D., & Rinaldi, A. (2001). Achieving successful collaboration in the evaluation of sexual assault prevention programs: A case study. Violence Against Women, 7, 1186-1201. [Posted October 2007]

Key Points: By collaborating with researchers or other consultants, community agencies can develop cost-effective evaluations with results that may be used to improve programs.

Summary: Sexual violence prevention programs have limited resources, and agency staff may lack training in evaluation. Outside consultants may not understand the limitations of conducting research in a community setting. The authors of this paper, an academic researcher and a community educator, describe the process of collaboration to develop and implement a formative evaluation of a school-based program. Working with program and evaluation goals established by the agency, the authors developed a brief survey that could be administered quickly by either the community educator or a classroom teacher. The survey tested acquired knowledge and attitudes, and compared responses from students participating in one- and two-day programs. The results helped the educator focus the curriculum on areas that the students felt were most valuable, and documented the benefit of multiple educational sessions.

The collaborative process was mutually beneficial to the participants and to the community agency. The evaluator and the educator shared the work load of the evaluation and cross-trained in each other’s area of expertise.

Limitations: The article describes a specific collaboration; the process would need to be tailored to fit another setting. Without a shared commitment to ending sexual violence and flexibility, the positive outcomes would be difficult to achieve.

Topics: Evaluation

Shultz, S. K., Scherman, A., & Marshall, L. J. (2000). Evaluation of university-based date rape prevention program: Effect on attitudes and behavior related to rape. Journal of College Student Development, 41, 193-201.

This study evaluates the effectiveness of the Campus Rape Prevention program in changing rape-related attitudes and behaviors of 60 male and female undergraduate students (18–22 years old). Participants in the treatment groups were less accepting of rape myths than those in the control groups, suggesting that treatment is better than no treatment. Results suggest that changes observed between treatment and control groups were the result of the prevention program rather than pretests. It was not possible to dismiss the existence of a relationship between rape-related attitudes and behaviors. The results of this study offer support that male participants' attitudes in support of rape decreased following the prevention program.

Topics: College; evaluation; myth/stereotypes; prevention

Sochting, I., Fairbrother, N., & Koch, W. J. (2004). Sexual assault of women: Prevention efforts and risk factors. Violence Against Women, 10, 73-93.

This review article summarizes the research on the effectiveness of different types of rape prevention programs, including attitude change and self-defense programs. A review of the body of literature on risk factors for sexual assault is also presented. Strategies for improving rape prevention programs are highlighted and include identifying targets for behavioral change based on risk factors and training women in rape resistance strategies. Results suggested that attitude change was a less effective prevention approach.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; college; evaluation; prevention; risk; vulnerability

Stephens, K. A., & George, W. H. (2004). Effects of anti-rape video content on sexually coercive and noncoercive college men's attitudes and alcohol expectancies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34, 402-416.

This study investigated the short-term effects of a video-based rape prevention program for college men. The video content had three components: rape myths, victim empathy, and outcome expectancies. A pilot study consisting of 101 male undergraduate students was conducted to determine the content validity and acceptability of the three videotape components. In the main study, a separate sample of 102 male undergraduates was randomly assigned to the video-based experimental program or an alternate video-based program that did not target the three components of interest. Results showed that the experimental videotape was associated with significant changes in several rape-related measures, such as attraction to sexual aggression, rape myth acceptance, and rape empathy compared to the alternate videotape. This study highlights the importance of developing and implementing programs to decrease men's potential for committing rape.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Stockdale, M. S. (2002). Analyzing focus group data with spreadsheets. American Journal of Health Studies, 18, 55-60. [Posted October 2007]

Key Points: The author introduces a method for transferring focus group data to a spreadsheet program for analysis.

Summary: The author provides detailed step-by-step instructions for analyzing focus group data from raw transcript through final report. Beginning with preparing data for coding using a word-processing program, she follows with directions for formatting the data, transferring it to a spreadsheet, and formatting the spreadsheet. Examples are shown of data in the word-processing program and after formatting in a Microsoft® Excel spreadsheet. Explanations for coding the data and developing a theme dictionary are clear. The article concludes with an example of how qualitative findings can be presented in a written report.

Limitations: Familiarity with a spreadsheet program such as Excel is assumed. Analysis instructions may be too detailed for experienced qualitative researchers or evaluators.

Topics: Evaluation

Swallow, V., Newton, J., & Van Lottum, C. (2003). How to manage and display qualitative data using "Framework" and Microsoft Excel. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 12, 610-612. [Posted October 2007]

Key Points: Qualitative evaluation data can be analyzed using a simple spreadsheet computer program.

Summary: The authors used a process for analyzing qualitative data called “Framework” (the five steps are listed in the article). This process gives a structure to text-based data. After developing the themes and coding frame of the data, the authors created a table in a spreadsheet with Microsoft® Excel software, and completed it with the coded data (a screen shot of a sample table is provided).
The authors describe several advantages of this method. It uses widely available software which is easy to learn. Data files can be shared easily between collaborators across different platforms. Excel offers a “track changes” function that allows researchers to exchange comments on each others’ work.

Limitations: The method requires some training and practice in qualitative analysis and Excel. In certain settings, Microsoft® Office software may not be available, although similar freeware programs could be substituted.

Topics: Evaluation

Yeater, E. A., & O'Donohue, W. (1999). Sexual assault prevention programs: Current issues, future directions, and the potential efficacy of interventions with women. Clinical Psychology Review, 19, 739-771.

Current problems facing the primary prevention of sexual assault are reviewed. Effective sexual assault prevention programs for both males and females have been slow to develop due to the fact that the etiologies of sexual assault have not been identified. Although dissemination of prevention programs has become increasingly popular in recent years, few programs have evaluated the extent to which the constructs identified in the interventions are effective at decreasing rates of sexual assault. The authors discuss previous studies in sexual assault prevention programs, methodological and conceptual problems that currently exist in the field, pragmatic difficulties regarding program implementation and evaluation, and recommendations for future research with an emphasis on interventions with female participants. It is concluded that the long-term negative consequences often associated with sexual victimization require that effective prevention programs are developed to decrease the high rates of sexual assault that occur on college campuses.

Topics: College; evaluation; prevention

Zweig, J., & Burt, M.R. (2007).  Predicting women’s perceptions of domestic violence and sexual assault agency helpfulness:  What matters to program clients?  Violence Against Women, 13, 1149-1178. [Posted July 2008]
 
Key Points: Women may rate the helpfulness of victim services based on the perceived level of interaction between community agencies.  

Summary:  Interviews with 1,509 women were conducted to asses if community agency interaction, staff behavior, and combination of services predict helpfulness of domestic violence and sexual assault agencies. Women reported that private non-profit victim service agencies were most helpful when there was positive staff behavior and when they felt a sense of control when working with staff.  Increased helpfulness was reported when victim services were perceived to have interacted with the legal system and other community agencies.  

Limitations:  Women were only interviewed once and so results do not examine the long-term impact on women’s health and safety.

Topics: community attitudes/responses, evaluation, victim services

Updated 08/19/08