These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on original papers published within the last 2 years. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona. To conduct an individual search or locate older articles use the Search Summary Database which includes over 600 articles related to sexual violence.

Brown, A. L., & Testa, M.  (2008). Social influences on judgments of rape victims: The role of the negative and positive social reactions of others.  Sex Roles, 58, 490-500. [Posted July 2008]

Key Points:  Stigmatizing reactions to rape victims may influence the reactions of others. 

Summary:   This study investigated how judgments about rape victims may be influenced by social reactions of others and varies by type of rape and gender.  Results were based on reports from 110 college students and showed exposure to negative social reactions decreased emotional support, perpetrator blame and sympathy and support to victim.  Negative reactions were associated with negative judgment but positive reactions had no effect. 

Limitations: The study did not indicate if one or a combination of negative reactions may influence negative social reactions.

Topics:  college, community attitudes/responses

Coker, A. L., Sanderson, M., Cantu, E., Huerta, D., & Fadden, M.K. (2008).  Frequency and types of partner violence among Mexican American college women.  Journal of American College Health, 56, 665-673. [Posted August 2008]

Key Points: Partner violence was prevalent among Mexican American women; however, a significant number reported that violence was not a problem in their relationship. 

Summary: Phone interviews were conducted with 149 women who were enrolled as college students near the Texas-Mexico border.  The interviews were structured to assess physical violence (PV), battering, sexual violence (SV), stalking psychological abuse, and lifetime physical violence.  Results indicated that 43% of women experienced some type of PV, 5.1% experienced SV, 19.7% were stalked and 30% experienced psychological abuse.  Co-occurrence of violence was evident among those who reported physical or sexual violence.  The probability of viewing violence as a problem increased with frequency of physical violence.

Limitations:  The sample size was small and women who participated in study may have been more or less likely to experience dating violence.

Topics: college, racial/ethnic differences, stalking, underserved populations

Daigle, L. E., Fisher, B., & Cullen, F. T. (2008). The violent and sexual victimization of college women: Is repeat victimization a problem? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, online. [Posted April 2008]

Key Points: College women who have experienced interpersonal violence are at elevated risk for revictimization during the six months following the first incident.

Summary: The study analyzed data from two national surveys on victimization of women enrolled in colleges and universities: the National College Women Violent Victimization (NCWVV; n=4,432) and the National College Women Sexual Victimization (NCWSV; n=4,446). Respondents were asked if they had experienced violent or sexual victimization during the school year, and when the incident occurred. This allowed researchers to determine the sequence in which repeat victimizations occurred.

Almost half of the victims experienced about three-quarters of all victimizations. Victims were at an elevated risk of re-experiencing violence within a few months following the first incident. Repeat incidents usually were the same kind of violence as the initial incident. Of non-sexual violent attacks, only simple assault carried a risk of repeated violence, and was the only type of violence more likely to be perpetrated by a stranger. The only victim behavior associated with single victimization was the use of forceful physical resistance.

Because most victims who report their attack do so to friends (rather than parents or authorities), researchers recommend including information on risks of repeat victimization in college sexual assault prevention education programs.

Limitations: The study was not able to determine if repeat victims were attacked by the same perpetrators during subsequent incidents; this information would be useful in planning prevention education.

Topics: avoidance/resistance; college; risk

Flack Jr., W. F., Caron, M. L., Leinen, S. J., Breitenbach, K. G., Barber, A. M., Brown, E. N. et al. (2008). "The red zone": Temporal risk for unwanted sex among college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, online. [Posted April 2008]

Key Points: First-year college women were not found to be at elevated risk for unwanted sex, but second-year women were at elevated risk during a period corresponding to sorority and fraternity pledging activities.

Summary: There is a popular perception that inexperienced college freshman women are at greatest risk for sexual assault, especially during the first few weeks or months of the fall semester. To test this, the researchers surveyed first-year (n=104) and second- year (n=101) male and female college students about unwanted experiences of sexual contact. Those who had experienced unwanted sex were asked to place the event(s) in one of 7 time periods.

Women reported significantly higher rates of unwanted sex than men (44% vs. 7%). Most experiences involved the consumption of alcohol (81%) and almost one-third of the offenders were well-known to their victims (all were students at the university). Relatively more unwanted touching experiences occurred during the last time period—the second year from about one month after the start of school to the middle of October—than any other time. Researchers were told by sorority members that this corresponded to the period called “pledging”, during which young (second-year) women were invited to frequent fraternity parties at which alcohol was consumed.

Limitations: This study was conducted at a small Eastern liberal arts college. College cultures and activities vary widely, and results of this study might have been different at a campus with different characteristics.

Topics: alcohol; college; fraternities/sororities; prevalence; risk

Gidycz, C., Rich, C., Orchowski, L., King, C., & Miller, A. (2006). The evaluation of a sexual assault self-defense and risk-reduction program for college women: A prospective study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 173-186. [Posted October 2006]

Key Points: College women who participated in a sexual assault risk-reduction program were more likely to practice protective behaviors than women who did not participate. Neither program participation nor practicing protective behaviors made a difference in rates of sexual victimization over a 6-month follow-up period.

Summary: Researchers examined changes in protective behaviors, sexual communication, and self-efficacy among college women participating in a sexual assault avoidance program (n=234) compared with a control group (n=266). The seven-hour skills-building program included lecture, video, group discussion, role play, and physical self-defense techniques. Three months later, a 1-½ hour “booster” session was given. Only self-protective behaviors increased over time more among program participants compared with the control group. About the same number of women in both groups reported experiencing moderate or severe victimization during the follow-up period. Among those who were victimized, program participants were more likely to blame the perpetrator. Researchers found that the only factor associated with being victimized during the follow-up period was a history of adolescent victimization.

Limits of the study include the small sample size. Program participants may have identified a broader range of experiences as sexual victimization than non-participants.

Topics: avoidance/resistance; college; evaluation

Gross, A. M., Winslett, A., Roberts, M., & Gohm, C. L. (2006). An examination of sexual violence against college women. Violence Against Women, 12, 288-300.

The purpose of the study was to examine the incidence and correlates of different forms of sexual victimization among a sample of college women. The sample consisted of 935 undergraduate female students who were recruited from introductory psychology classes and on-campus sororities. A questionnaire was administered to participants in small groups. The results showed that 27% of the women had experienced unwanted sexual contact since enrolling in college. Thirty-seven percent of the sample reported multiple forced sexual experiences. African-American women reported higher rates of sexual victimization compared to White women. Survivors and perpetrators reported high rates of alcohol consumption during the time of the sexual experience. Boyfriends were the most common perpetrator of sexual aggression. Implications for prevention efforts are discussed.

Topics: college; prevalence; risk

Katz, J., & Myhr, L. (2008). Perceived conflict patterns and relationship quality associated with verbal sexual coercion by male dating partners. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 798-814. [Posted June 2008].
 
Key Points: Verbal sexual coercion by male partners was found to be positively associated with women’s perceptions of destructive verbal conflict patterns and poor relationship satisfaction and sexual functioning. 

Summary:  This study explored verbal sexual coercion against women by their male sexual partners. Once hundred ninety-three undergraduate women in consensually sexual dating relationships were asked about male partner verbal sexual coercion, conflict behaviors, and relationship quality.  The findings showed an association between women feeling pressured to have sex and their perceptions of psychological abuse and destructive conflict behavior patterns.  In general, women reported less relationship satisfaction and less sexual satisfaction and desire.

Limitations: The sample consisted of primarily Caucasian college-aged women.  Results were based on self-reports and may be subject to response bias.
   
Topics: male-female relations, college

Kaysen, D., Neighbors, C., Martell, J., Fossos, N. & Larimer, M. (2006). Incapacitated rape and alcohol abuse. Addictive Behaviors, 31, 1820-1832. [Posted December 2006]

Key Points: High rates of alcohol consumption both predicted and followed sexual assault among a sample of college students.

Summary: Male and female students at three colleges completed questionnaires about alcohol use at three time points over three years. Incapacitated rape was assessed with the question, “have you ever been pressured or forced to have sex with someone because you were too drunk to prevent it?” More women than men reported ever having experienced incapacitated sexual assault (10.0% vs. 5.7%).

Students who drank the most and had the most self-reported alcohol-related problems were more likely to experience incapacitated sexual assault. The relationship was cyclical: after sexual assault, students drank more and had more alcohol-related problems. Women who had never experienced incapacitated rape and who were not raped during the study period drank less than other students.

Results from the study indicated that programs to discourage high-risk drinking among college students may help reduce incidence of sexual assault. The researchers suggested that early intervention following sexual assault may help prevent later increases in alcohol use and alcohol-related problems.

Topics: alcohol; college

Messman-Moore, T. L. & Brown, A. L. (2006). Risk perception, rape, and sexual revictimization: A prospective study of college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 159-172. [Posted January 2007]

Key Points: Delayed responses to a hypothetical acquaintance rape scenario increased college women’s risks for rape and revictimization during an 8 month follow-up period.

Summary: In this longitudinal study, 262 women completed a series of questionnaires four times over eight months. Rates of sexual victimization and rape experienced by participants were assessed over time. At baseline, 56.8% of the women had already experienced some form of sexual victimization in their lifetime.
Participants were asked to read two scenarios ending in rape, one involving a male acquaintance and the other a male stranger (scenarios are presented in the Appendix).  Women indicated at what point during the scenario they would feel uncomfortable and when they would leave the situation.

During the eight month follow-up period, 43.4% of participants reported some type of unwanted sexual experience, and 10% of the women were raped. Prior victimization and delayed risk response (i.e., leaving the hypothetical situation later in the scenario) were associated with increased likelihood of sexual victimization during the course of the study. 

The researchers recommended that prevention programs place more emphasis on risk-reduction behaviors rather than risk identification, and that acquaintance rape scenarios should be used more than stranger rape scenarios in sexual violence education programs.

Topics: college; prevalence; risk

Milhausen, R., McBride, K. & Jun, M. (2006). Evaluating a peer-led, theatrical sexual assault prevention program: How do we measure success? College Student Journal, 40, 316-328. [Posted October 2006]

Key Points: Sexual assault prevention programs that discuss ambiguous sexual situations must clearly emphasize the differences between consensual sex and rape, or risk unintentionally reinforcing rape myths.  

Summary: Researchers evaluated the success of a peer-led sexual assault prevention intervention. The program consists of a skit about a date that ended in a sexual encounter. The skit is followed by group discussion and education about sexual assault on campus.
Thirty-seven men and 37 women completed a pre- and post-test. Males were more likely than females to endorse rape-supportive myths both before and after. After the presentation, fewer males and females agreed with two measures of rape-myth acceptance, but both had a slight decrease in accepting that “No means stop.” This might be explained by ambiguity in the skit, and the researchers recommend making the point more clearly and strongly.

Researchers also looked for differences in results between two instruments: the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (RMAS) and the Sexual Beliefs Scale (SBS). Because no difference was found pre- and post-test on the RMAS, but the SBS measured differences in 3 of 5 subscales, researchers suggest that the SBS is a more useful tool.

Limits of the study include a small and non-random sample. It is not known if attitude changes lasted over time.

Topics: college; evaluation; myths/stereotypes

Miller, A. K., Markman, K. D., & Handley, I. M.  (2007). Self-blame among sexual assault victims prospectively predicts revictimization: A perceived sociolegal context model of risk.  Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29, 129-136. [Posted June 2006].

Key Points: Sexual assault victims who perceived the law as permissive of nonconsensual sex are more likely to blame themselves for their assault.   Feelings of self-blame place victims at greater risk of sexual revictimization during a 4.2 month period.

Summary: The study explores relationships between sexual assault, self-blame and sexual revictimization (SRV).  Participants of the study consisted of 144 undergraduate females at a Midwestern University who reported adolescent sexual assault experiences occurring after age 14.  Each participant was administered the SRV version of the SES and the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory.  Participants also completed interviews about their sexual assault experiences and a survey on legal perceptions of heterosexual interaction resulting in intercourse. All participants completed the SRV version of the SES 4.2 months later.  This investigation found that the degree of self-blame women experience following a sexual assault can influence subsequent victimization.  Women who have greater perceptions that the law permits men’s behavior of engaging in nonconsensual sex are more likely to blame themselves for their assault or that they failed to prevent their assaults. 

Limitations:  The study included a sample that was primarily Caucasian (96.4%).  Caucasian women may have different legal perceptions of sexual assault than women from different ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic backgrounds.

Topics: secondary victimization, college, effects

Parkhill, M. R. & Abbey, A. (2008). Does alcohol contribute to the confluence model of sexual assault perpetration?  Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, 529-554. [Posted September 2008]
 
Key Points: Men who reported higher levels of general alcohol behaviors and expectancies reported high levels of impersonal sex, hostile masculinity, and situational alcohol use.

Summary: This study expanded on past research on the Confluence Model of Sexual Assault Perpetration by examining how alcohol use may contribute to men’s likelihood of perpetrating sexual assault. Two key components of the Confluence Model were tested: impersonal sex and hostile masculinity.  The sample consisted of 365 men at an urban university who were at least 21 years old, drank alcohol, and had heterosexual dating experiences within the past year. The survey measured delinquency, drinking behaviors and expectancies, impersonal sex, hostile masculinity, situational alcohol consumption, and sexual assault perpetration.  At least one sexually aggressive act (making a woman have sex who clearly did not consent or who was unable to consent) was reported by 58% of the men, 48% perpetrated only when sober, 27% only when intoxicated, and 25% had perpetrated both when sober and intoxicated.
 
Limitations:  The confluence model developed for research with college students may not be generalizable to other community samples.

Topics: alcohol, college, perpetration

*Return to Research Summary Index

updated 09/30/08