Bergen, R. & Bukovec, P. (2006). Men and intimate partner rape: characteristics of men who sexually abuse their partner. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 1375-1384.

Key Points: Among men enrolled in an abuse intervention program, more than half said they had committed at least one kind of sexual abuse against their most recent female partner.

Summary: Men enrolling in an abuse intervention program completed questionnaires (n=229) that included 17 items about sexually violent or coercive acts with their most recent female partner, ranging from emotionally coercing her to have sex against her will to physically forcing her to have sex with the perpetrator, other people, animals, or objects. Fifty-three percent of the men said they had committed at least one kind of sexual abuse. The most common act of abuse (40%) was emotionally coercing a partner to have sex when she did not want to. Fourteen percent of men used physical force at least once. Seventeen percent admitted to having sex with a partner when she was unable to consent (including while she slept).

Limits of the study include generalizability: 65% of men in the study were court-ordered to the intervention program, and one-third were self-referred. Almost half of the men were African-American. Care should be taken when reviewing the data in the study; the authors mix reports of their results with information from other studies, which may be confusing. Terms such as “sexual assault,” “rape,” and “sexual abuse” are used interchangeably.

Topics: Marital rape; perpetration

David, W., Simpson, T. & Cotton, A. (2006). Taking charge: A pilot curriculum of self-defense and personal safety training for female veterans with PTSD because of military sexual trauma. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 555-565.

Key Points: Participation in a self-defense/personal safety intervention reduced symptoms of PTSD and depression among female veterans who had experienced sexual assault and sexual trauma in the military.

Summary: A group of twelve female veterans (average age 48.3 years) in treatment for PTSD at a VA hospital participated in this 12-week, 36-hour pilot treatment program. Each three-hour group session included one hour of psychoeducation and role-play; one hour of physical self-defense training with a male and a female instructor, and one hour of debriefing. Three female psychologists were present throughout each session. Data was collected from ten women: twice before the intervention, immediately after completion, and at three and six months after. Significant changes lasting over time included: being able to better identify risky vs. safe situations; less avoidance of social situations to avoid triggering memories; less hyperarousal; less depression; and increased self-efficacy. A strong bond developed among participants which may have helped all twelve complete the program.

This study was limited by a small sample size of self-selected participants who were carefully screened for psychological and physical stability. Further studies should be done to determine if equally positive results are found in other groups.

Topics: Military; survivors; treatment

Gidycz, C., Rich, C., Orchowski, L., King, C., & Miller, A. (2006). The evaluation of a sexual assault self-defense and risk-reduction program for college women: A prospective study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 173-186.

Key Points: College women who participated in a sexual assault risk-reduction program were more likely to practice protective behaviors than women who did not participate. Neither program participation nor practicing protective behaviors made a difference in rates of sexual victimization over a 6-month follow-up period.

Summary: Researchers examined changes in protective behaviors, sexual communication, and self-efficacy among college women participating in a sexual assault avoidance program (n=234) compared with a control group (n=266). The seven-hour skills-building program included lecture, video, group discussion, role play, and physical self-defense techniques. Three months later, a 1-½ hour “booster” session was given. Only self-protective behaviors increased over time more among program participants compared with the control group. About the same number of women in both groups reported experiencing moderate or severe victimization during the follow-up period. Among those who were victimized, program participants were more likely to blame the perpetrator. Researchers found that the only factor associated with being victimized during the follow-up period was a history of adolescent victimization.

Limits of the study include the small sample size. Program participants may have identified a broader range of experiences as sexual victimization than non-participants.

Topics: Avoidance/resistance; college

Hellman, C. & House, D. (2006). Volunteers serving victims of sexual assault. Journal of Social Psychology, 146, 117-123.

Key Points: Sexual violence crisis hotline and hospital advocate volunteers were most satisfied with their work when they were emotionally attached to the agency and attended monthly meetings that they found helpful. Satisfied volunteers intended to stay in their positions. 

Summary: In this study, researchers looked at factors associated with volunteer satisfaction, commitment, and intent to continue volunteering. Twenty-eight sexual violence crisis hotline and hospital advocate volunteers filled out mail-in surveys. Satisfied volunteers were more likely to report intending to remain in their positions. Compared with less satisfied volunteers, satisfied volunteers reported higher levels of feelings of competence, social support, and emotional attachment to the agency. They also reported finding monthly agency meetings more valuable and had lower levels of exposure to victim blaming from other service providers.

This is a very small sample, but it reaches the same conclusions as previous research. The authors recommended on-going training for volunteers, including skills-building to confront victim-blaming among other service providers. By addressing these issues, volunteers may be more satisfied, which may lead to better retention.

Topics: Advocate self-care; rape crisis centers; victim services

Martin, S., Ray, N. Sotres-Alvarez, D., Kupper, L., Moracco, K., Dickens, P., et al. (2006). Physical and sexual assault of women with disabilities. Violence Against Women, 12, 823-837.

Key Points: Women with disabilities were more likely to experience sexual assault than women without disabilities in the past year. Both groups were equally likely to experience physical assault.

Summary: This study looked at data from phone surveys completed by 5,326 women in North Carolina. Prevalence of physical, emotional, or mental disabilities was estimated at 26%. Sexual assault (forced sexual activity) was experienced by 1.5% of disabled women and 0.6% of women without disabilities in the past year. Women who self-identified as disabled and those with cognitive impairments were significantly more likely to have experienced sexual assault (2.1% and 1.7% respectively). Other factors associated with having experienced sexual violence were being under 40 years old and being non-white. Physical assault was experienced during the previous year by 2.0% of disabled women and 2.3% of non-disabled women. Results suggest that sexual violence and domestic violence services should ensure that their services are accessible to and appropriate for women with physical, emotional, and mental disabilities.

Women in institutional settings (care homes, prison, etc.) were not included in this study. Because only households with telephones were surveyed, these results cannot be generalized to women who live without telephones.

Topics: Disabled; prevalence

Milhausen, R., McBride, K. & Jun, M. (2006). Evaluating a peer-led, theatrical sexual assault prevention program: How do we measure success? College Student Journal, 40, 316-328.

Key Points: Sexual assault prevention programs that discuss ambiguous sexual situations must clearly emphasize the differences between consensual sex and rape, or risk unintentionally reinforcing rape myths.  

Summary: Researchers evaluated the success of a peer-led sexual assault prevention intervention. The program consists of a skit about a date that ended in a sexual encounter. The skit is followed by group discussion and education about sexual assault on campus.
Thirty-seven men and 37 women completed a pre- and post-test. Males were more likely than females to endorse rape-supportive myths both before and after. After the presentation, fewer males and females agreed with two measures of rape-myth acceptance, but both had a slight decrease in accepting that “No means stop.” This might be explained by ambiguity in the skit, and the researchers recommend making the point more clearly and strongly.

Researchers also looked for differences in results between two instruments: the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (RMAS) and the Sexual Beliefs Scale (SBS). Because no difference was found pre- and post-test on the RMAS, but the SBS measured differences in 3 of 5 subscales, researchers suggest that the SBS is a more useful tool.

Limits of the study include a small and non-random sample. It is not known if attitude changes lasted over time.

Topics: College; evaluation; myths/stereotypes

Miller, K., Melnick, M., Farrell, M., Sabo, D., & Barnes, G. (2006). Jocks, gender, binge drinking, and adolescent violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 105-120.

Key Points: Not all school athletes identify as “jocks,” and not all jocks are involved in school sports. This study found that being a jock was associated with higher levels of violent behavior. The most violence was found among white male jocks who did not participate in sports.

Summary: The Family and Adolescent Study gathered information on Western New York adolescents in six waves between 1989-1996. This article was based on a sample of 608 male and female adolescents from that study. The researchers looked at how 4 characteristics (jock identity, athletic participation, binge drinking, and gender) were associated with committing violence within the family or outside the family. They found that: males who identified as jocks but did not play sports were involved in more frequent violence outside the family than athlete jocks; jocks and non-jocks committed similar levels of family violence; binge-drinking was associated with family violence only among non-jocks; and females who identified as jocks were not more violent than non-jock females.

Limits to the study included a lack of specific information about the types of violence committed (for example, sexual violence, gang violence, or bullying). Adolescents were not asked to define what they meant by the term “jock.” Athletes were not separated out by sport, so differences between participants in individual and team sports or contact and no-contact sports could not be determined.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; athletes

Santana, M., Raj, A., Decker, M., La Marche, A., & Silverman, J. (2006). Masculine gender roles associated with increased sexual risk and intimate partner violence perpetration among young adult men. Journal of Urban Health, 83, 575-585.

Key Points: Researchers found that men who believed in traditional male gender roles were more likely to have committed intimate partner violence within the past year than men with less traditional beliefs.

Summary: A group of 283 men, aged 18-35, were recruited at a community health center in Boston. The men were mostly Hispanic (74.9%) and Black (21.9%), and 55% were not born in the continental US. In the previous year, 40% reported committing one or more types of intimate partner violence (IPV): sexual violence (28.3%); physical violence (27.6%); and violence causing injury and/or need for medical services (13.8%). Men who had traditional male gender role beliefs were more likely to have committed intimate partner violence (IPV) within the past year and to have unprotected vaginal sex with a primary partner than men with less traditional beliefs. However, traditional beliefs were not associated with having multiple female partners, forcing unprotected sex, or engaging in unprotected anal sex. Levels of violence were the same regardless of race/ethnicity, country of origin, or acculturation. Only a low level of education (not having a high school diploma or GED) was associated with having traditional beliefs and with committing higher rates of IPV.

The results do not imply a cause-and-effect relationship between IPV and traditional beliefs. However, interventions to reduce IPV and sexual risk among young men may be more successful if they promote less traditional gender role beliefs.

Topics: Male-female relations; myths/stereotypes; perpetration

Schultz, J., Bell, K., Naugle, A., Polusny, M. (2006). Child sexual abuse and adulthood sexual assault among military veteran and civilian women. Military Medicine, 171, 723-728.

Key Points: Female veterans were more likely to report having been sexually assaulted as an adult than civilian women. Among those who were sexually abused as children (under age 14), veteran women were more likely to have been abused by a parental figure. 

Summary: Both veteran women (N=142) and non-veteran women (N=81) from community settings completed questionnaires about their experiences of child sexual abuse, adult sexual victimization, and adult sexual assault. More than twice as many veteran women (48.9%) reported adult sexual assault than community women (21.5%). Veteran women and community women reported similar levels of child sexual abuse (48.6% and 43.2% respectively), but veteran women were much more likely to have been sexually abused by a parental figure (91.9% vs. 10%). The authors recommend screening women in the military to assist those who may have been sexually traumatized, and development of a sexual assault prevention program for all women entering the military.

Because women with a history of sexual violence may have been more likely to complete the questionnaire, rates of reported sexual violence may be higher than in a general population.

Topics: Military; survivors

Silverman, J., Decker, M., Reed, E., Rothman, E., Hathaway, J., Raj, A., et al. (2006). Social norms & beliefs regarding sexual risk and pregnancy involvement among adolescent males treated for dating violence perpetration. Journal of Urban Health, 83, 723-735.

Key Points: Beliefs about normal sexual behavior of men and women should be addressed when developing programs to reduce relationship violence and sexual risk.

Summary: The goal of this exploratory study was to generate hypotheses about the relationship between beliefs about sexual behavior and the practice of risky behaviors. Six focus groups were held with 34 young men aged 13-20 who were enrolled in dating violence programs because of actual abuse or concerns about their potential to abuse. Several major themes emerged from the groups. Participants believed that it was normal for men have multiple partners and that claims of sex gave men status. They described men as rationalizing rape to avoid thinking of themselves as rapists. They explained that men would not use condoms while high, or if putting a condom on gave a girl an opportunity to leave. They described hostile relations with women, who they believed usually lied about being raped. Participants believed men were not responsible for pregnancies because women used pregnancy to trick men into relationships.

Limitations of the study included the small sample, the inability to separate actual perpetrators from those merely at risk for dating violence, and the risk that focus group participants were trying to impress the researchers and each other.

Topics: Adolescent/high school; perpetration

Wolff, N., Blitz, C., Shi, J., Bachman, R., Siegel, J. (2006). Sexual violence inside prisons: Rates of victimization. Journal of Urban Health, 83, 835-848.

Key Points: Sexual victimization in prisons (including sexual contact and nonconsensual sex acts) occurs most frequently between female inmates.

Summary: To estimate the prevalence of sexual violence in a prison system, male (n=6,964) and female inmates (n=564) in twelve prisons in a small eastern state completed a computer-assisted survey. Inmates were asked about incidents involving abusive sexual contact and non-consensual sex acts by other inmates or by prison staff within the last 6 months. Females reported inmate-on-inmate sexual violence at 212 incidents per 1000 inmates while males reported only 43 incidents per 1000 inmates. Rates of non-consensual sex (inmate on inmate) were 32 per 1000 for women and 15 per for men. Staff-on-inmate sexual victimization rates were the same for men and women (76 per 1000), with men reporting 19 per 1000 incidents of non-consensual sex vs. 17 per 1000 for women.

This study had a good response rate (average 39%) from all inmates housed in general population. Because rates of sexual violence varied by the site, future studies should look at factors that can minimize risks. Inmate experiences of trauma and disease from forced sex should be addressed to prevent them from contributing to the ill health of their community when they are released. 

Topics: Male rape; prevalence; underserved populations

 

Updated 08/01/07