Rape prevention education

Rape prevention education:
Towards closing the gap between theory & practice

Karen J. Bachar & Mary P. Koss
University of Arizona
College of Public Health

National Sexual Violence Prevention Conference May 16- 19, 2000

Objectives
I. To discuss current scholarship on factors related to rape vulnerability & risk
II. To examine recent college based rape prevention education efforts (most published evaluations)
III. To identify possible future directions in rape prevention education & stakeholder opportunities for primary prevention partnerships

I. Vulnerability & Risk
-Vulnerability: A combination of societal, institutional, dyadic, & individual, level influences thought to heighten a woman's risk for victimization
-Risk: A combination of societal, institutional, dyadic, & individual, level influences that lead to perpetration

Research on vulnerability can be classified according to three overarching models:
    -(VC) Vulnerability- creating traumatic experiences model
    -(SP) The social- psychological characteristics model
    -(VE) The vulnerability- enhancing situation model

Can we predict vulnerability?
    – No evidence supports a link between attitude & personality characteristics & increased vulnerability to rape
    – The relationship between alcohol/ drug use and SA is complex
            • Kilpatrick, Acierno, Resnick, Saunders & Best, (1997).
            • Abbey & Harnish, (1995)
            • Norris, Nurius, & Dimeff, (1996)

Koss & Dinero (1989)
-Past victimization, multiple sexual partners, & sexual values fail to present a practical improvement over using using random chance to predict victimization (19% vs. 15%).
-Conclusion: While a small subset of women (10%) can be classified based on the after affects of childhood Sexual Assault (SA), including influences on sexual values, drinking, & level of sexual activity appears to increase the risk of rape. SA is generally not predictable

Points to Ponder…
-Can we help prevent rape perpetration by focusing on vulnerability factors?
-Can we help women to avoid rape by focusing on vulnerability factors?

Risk factors that have been studied at the:
• Individual Level
• Dyadic Level
• Institutional Level
• Societal Level

• Majority of risk research based single factors
• When talking about risk important to look at the “Big Picture”
• Patterns of risk factors examined together may predict perpetration

The Confluence Model – (Malamuth et al, 1991, 1995 & Malamuth 1998)
    – Two components
        • A man's stance towards sexual behavior
        • Hostile masculinity in supporting sexual aggression & influences human relationships
-Shaped by early life experiences, especially harsh formative experiences.

The Confluence model
– Incorporates factors from societal to individual levels
– Utilizes a developmental perspective focusing on factors that contribute to sexual & nonsexual aggression
– Posits that the likelihood of a factor occurring depends on whether previous factors have occurred
– Hypothesizes that when certain factors occur in combination perpetration is more likely than when only some factors occur

II. College Rape Prevention Education
-Most prevention education programs are not published
-A recent literature review yielded 16 articles focused on college based prevention education programs published between 1994 & 1999
-Programs were developed for
• Mixed- sex audiences (8)
•Men ( 5)
•Women( 3)

-Programs vary with respect to
    –Length
        • 60 minutes to semester length
    – Approach
        • Mixed sex, men only women only
        • Lecture, theater, video, vignettes
    – Content
        • Attitudes, empathy, knowledge, supportive behaviors

-Evaluation results are reported along five broad categories
    – Attitudes
    – Behavioral intention
    – Behaviors (self reported & observed)
    – Knowledge
    – Incidence of self- reported victimization

-Results
    – Mixed Sex Programs
    – Programs Targeting Men
    – Programs Targeting Women

-Issues to consider
    -Few published evaluations
        – What are the promising practices?
    -Few longitudinal studies
        – Time, labor & $$$
        – Short term out comes easier & expedient
    -Utility of mixed- sex programs
        – Mutually exclusive goals

III. Future Directions for Prevention
    -When should we do prevention education?
        – Life span approach
    -Where should interventions occur?
        – Important to develop partnerships in areas that have been avoided or underserved such as the juvenile justice system, alternative high schools, job training programs, junior colleges & programs for teen mothers

-Are there institutions we could be partnering with?
– With youth - other anti violence, & positive communication programs
– With teen & adults - Link drug, alcohol & tobacco programs with rape prevention education

-Who should we target
    – Prevention efforts must be directed at men & informed by research on factors that place males at risk for perpetration
    – Work with women
        • Focus on Resistance

Conclusions
-Women's behaviors are not causally related to rape
-Perpetration must be viewed as the product of many causal influences
-Factors related to the behavior of perpetrators must be used to inform prevention efforts
-Important to create partnerships to present rape prevention & avoidance training in new contexts.
-Important to validate how much work has been done
-It is only through previous efforts that future efforts are possible.

How did I do?

        -Karen J. Bachar
    University of Arizona
    College of Public Health
    2223 E. Speedway
    Tucson AZ, 85716
    520- 318- 7211
    Karenb@u.arizona.edu

Selected works:
*Bachar, K. J., & Koss, M. P. (2000). From prevalence to prevention: Closing the gap between what we know about
rape and what we do. In C. M. Renzetti, R. K. Bergen, & J. L. Edelson (Eds.), Sourcebook on Violence Against
Women Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
*Breitenbecher, K. H. (2000). Sexual assault on college campuses: Is an ounce of prevention enough? Applied &
Preventative Psychology, 9, 23- 52.
*Foubert, J. D. (2000). The longitudinal effects of a rape- prevention program on fraternity men’s attitudes, behavioral
intent and behavior. Journal of American College Health, 48, 158- 163.
*Gidycz, C. A., Hanson, K., & Layman, M. J. (1995). A prospective analysis of the relationships among sexual assault
experiences. An extension of previous findings. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 5- 29.
*Kilpatrick, D. G., Acierno, R., Resnick, H. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1997). A 2- year longitudinal study of
the relationships between violent assault and substance use in women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,
65( 5), 834- 847.
*Koss, M. P., & Cleveland, H. H. (1997). Stepping on toes: Social roots of date rape lead to intractability and
politicization. In M. D. Schwartz (Ed.), Researching sexual violence against women: Methodological and personal
perspectives (pp. 4- 21). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
*Koss, M. P., & Dinero, T. E. (1989). Discriminate analysis of risk factors for sexual victimization among a national
sample of college women. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 57, 242- 250.
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religious background. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 203- 219.
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*Norris, J., Nurius, P. S., & Dimeff, L. A. (1996). Through her eyes: Factors affecting women's perception of and
resistance to acquaintance sexual aggression threat. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 123- 146.
*Malamuth, N. M. (1998). The confluence model as an organizing framework for research on sexually aggressive
men: Risk moderators, imagined aggression, and pornography consumption. In R. G. Geen, & E. Donnerstein (Eds.)
Human Aggression: Theories, research, and implications for social policy (pp. 229- 245). San Diego, CA: Academic
Press.
*Malamuth, N. M., Linz, D., Heavey, C. L., Barnes, G., & Acker, M. (1995). Using the confluence model of sexual
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*Pittman, N. E., & Taylor, R. G., (1992). MMPI profiles of partners of incestuous offenders and partners of alcoholics.
Family Dynamics of Addiction Quarterly, 2, 52- 59.
*Rozee, P. D., & Koss, M. P. (In Press). Rape: A century of resistance. Psychology of Women Quarterly.
*Shultz, S. K. (2000). Evaluation of a university- based date rape prevention program: Effect on attitudes and behavior
related to rape. Journal of College Student Development, 41, 193- 201.
*Testa, M., & Dermen, K. H. (1999). The differential correlates of sexual coercion and rape. Journal of Interpersonal
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*Ullman, S. E. (1998). Does offender violence escalate when women fight back? Journal of Interpersonal Violence,
13, 179- 192.
*Ullman, S. E., Karabatsos, G., & Koss, M. P. (1999). Alcohol and sexual assault in a national sample of college
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*Yeater, E. A., & O’Donohue (1999). Sexual assault prevention programs: Current issues, future directions, and the
potential efficacy of interventions with women. Clinical Psychology Review, 19, 739- 771.