This article examined the support group component of the Expect Respect Dating Violence Prevention Program. In 2004-2005, interviews were conducted with 10 support groups in public middle school, high school, and juvenile detention settings. Interviews consisted of questions regarding aspects of the program the participants considered the most meaningful and changes in personal relationships, knowledge and attitudes, skills, and self-awareness. Most findings were consistent across groups regardless of gender, age, facilitator, or setting. Participants reported that group norms including confidentiality, respect, and emotional honesty made it easier to share experiences and emotions within a group setting. Positive relationships with group members, rather than the curriculum itself, was reported to be the most important and memorable part of the program for participants. In public schools settings, boys reported improved communication and recognition of their own abusive behaviors; girls reported an increased assertiveness and expectation to be treated well. Boys in juvenile detention reported the most change in attitudes and norms.
These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on original papers published within the last 6 years. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona. To conduct an individual search or locate older articles use the Search Summary Database which includes over 600 articles related to sexual violence.
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Ball, B., Kerig, P. K., & Rosenbluth, B. (2009). “Like a family but better because you can actually trust each other”: The expect respect dating violence prevention program for at-risk youth. Health Promotion Practice, 10, 45S-58S.
Qualitative methodology was used and lacks generalizability to all program participants.
Banyard, V. L., Eckstein, R. P., & Moynihan, M. M. (2009). Sexual violence prevention. The role of stages of change. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, (in press).
This article reviews the transtheoretical model of readiness for change and examined how it was applied to a primary prevention program, Bringing in the Bystander. The study examined how to operationalize and create measures to quantify readiness for change in the field of sexual violence prevention and evaluation. Findings indicated that individuals in the precontemplative stage experienced fewer program effects. Also, findings suggested that measures used to quantify readiness for change demonstrated reliability, validity, as well as internal consistency and stability over time.
Sample was small and lacked ethnic diversity. Outcome measures were mostly attitudinal.
Basile, K. C., Espelage, D. L., Rivers, I., McMahon, P. M., & Simon, T. R. (2009). The theoretical and empirical links between bullying behavior and male sexual violence perpetration. Aggression and Violence Behavior, 14, 336-347.
The intent of this paper was to review shared and independent risk and protective factors for male bullying and sexual violence perpetration, examine the relationship, describe how the social-ecological framework may be useful in understanding the association, and provide a summary of current research. Results indicated that both behaviors share many risk and protective factors, but more research is needed as well as a theoretical model to explain the development, progression, and interrelationships of bullying and sexual violence perpetration. Authors suggested that bullying prevention strategies need to be designed to teach youth skills for reducing impulsive behavior, enhance parental support and connectedness to schools. Themes that should be addressed are indentified.
The association does not imply bullying is a pathway to sexual violence perpetration.
Bossarte, R. M., Simon, T. R., & Swahn, M. H. (2008). Clustering of adolescent dating violence, peer violence, and suicidal behavior. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 815-833.
Data was collected in 2004 from 1,653 students from a racially and ethnically diverse high-risk high school. A survey was administered to measure dating violence, same-sex violence, and suicidal behavior. A 5 cluster method was used to identify groups of individuals with patterns of co-occurring traits or behaviors. The clusters were Low Violence, Peer Context, Dating Context, Psychological Abuse, and High Violence. Findings suggested that adolescents involved in general violence may be involved in dating and same-sex peer violence and youth that report the highest levels of interpersonal violence are at greater risk for suicidal behaviors.
Sample included youth who reported perpetration of violence or abuse from a high-risk urban school and there are limitations based on methodological analysis.
Casey, E. A., Beadnell, B., & Lindhorst, T. P. (2008). Predictors of sexually coercive behavior in a nationally representative sample of adolescent males. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 1129-1147.
Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health was used to examine mediating mechanisms and predictors that may link childhood experiences of violence or neglect to early adulthood sexually coercive behaviors with romantic partners. Predictive factors identified from the Confluence Model of sexual aggression included: impersonal sexual attitudes and beliefs and alcohol use and delinquency. Those with a history of childhood victimization comprised less than 30 percent of the sample, yet accounted for 45 percent of those reporting coercive behaviors, however, 55 percent of those who reported coercive behaviors did not report any childhood abuse experiences. Results indicated that physical and sexual abuse was significantly associated with sexually coercive behavior in adulthood and that childhood sexual victimization was mediated by early sexual initiation and adolescent delinquent behavior. Implications for practice included: prevention efforts should target victims of childhood abuse, sexual violence prevention content should be included in programs aimed at reducing violence and delinquency among adolescents, and multifactated prevention approaches are needed.
The data set limited the context of perpetration to coercion of romantic of sexual partner and may not have identified all cases of sexually coercive behaviors.
Chiodo, D., Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C., Hughes, R., & Jaffe, P. (2009). Impact of sexual harassment victimization by peers on subsequent adolescent victimization and adjustment: A longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45, 246-252.
Gender differences were examined in the prevalence and type of sexual harassment victimization experienced by 1734 ninth grade students in 23 schools. Data was collected on victimization experiences and adjustments during 9th and 11th grade. Findings indicated that both females and males that experienced sexual harassment in grade 9 were more than 2 times as likely to report it again in grade 11. The type of sexual harassment experienced differed across genders. Males reported homosexual slurs and receiving unwanted sexual pictures, photos, and messages while females reported unwanted comments, gestures, and touch. Victimization experienced by girls in grade 9 was associated with increased risk of self-harm, suicidal thoughts, maladaptive dieting, early dating, substance use, and unsafe feelings at school. Similar associations were reported by males, except for maladaptive dieting and self-harm behaviors. Violence delinquency perpetration was significantly predicted by victimization in grade 9 for both males and females.
Study was conducted in Canada.
Clinton-Sherrod, A. M., Morgan-Lopez, A. A., Gibbs, D., Hawkins, S. R., Hart, L., Ball, B., et al. (2009). Factors contributing to the effectiveness of four school-based sexual violence interventions. Health Promotion Practice, 10, 19S-28S.
This study examined factors that are associated with changes in attitudes, knowledge, and intended behaviors related to sexual violence from 4 school-based interventions. Findings of the study indicated that mixed gender groups showed greater increase in recognition of sexual harassment and personal boundaries (SHPB) compared to single gender groups, and boys in mixed gender groups had higher increase on SHPB than girls. Higher scores for SHPB and understanding of positive dating relationship norms (PDRN) were seen in a classroom setting than a group setting. Gender composition and delivery format should be considered when assessing program effectiveness.
Diverse programs were examined and control groups were not used so the change experienced by participants may have not been related to programming.
deLara, E. W. (2008). Developing a philosophy about bullying and sexual harassment: Cognitive coping strategies among high school students. Journal of School Violence, 7, 72-96.
This article examined 122 rural high school student’s experiences with bullying and harassment, strategies for dealing with victimization, and interpretation of their peer’s actions. Data was gathered through individual interviews and focus groups from 3 schools. Findings suggested that the majority of students believed that bullying and harassment are normal and that acceptance of these behaviors is necessary. Acceptance of bullying and harassment was valued by students and allowed them to maintain a place within a social group. Strategies that students utilized were to do nothing, use various cognitive mechanisms, tell an adult, or react. Two kinds of teasing were identified: playful and mean-spirited. Students also reported that an inability to accept peer abuse meant that the individual was of “poor mental health” and reporting of bullying or harassment to an adult was used in rare circumstances. Students reported that adults were not aware of the amount of sexual harassment in school or they did not recognize it as sexual harassment. Implications of these findings included that adolescents should be involved in the process of defining bullying and harassment and in the development of solutions.
Study sample included 3 rural high schools.
Fredland, N. M. (2008). Sexual bullying. Addressing the gap between bullying and dating violence. Advances in Nursing Science, 31, 95-105.
Sexual bullying is a conceptual term associated with young adolescents to define an overlap between bullying, dating violence and sexual harassment. It is used to describe unhealthy teasing patterns that occur when youth in their middle school years begin to notice the opposite sex. The review article contains information regarding characteristics of bullies, victims, and bully-victims (has experiences as both bully and victim), school and family factors, and gender differences in forms of bullying. Bullying behavior occur most frequently on the playground and in the classroom and bullies began dyadic dating 1-1 ½ years earlier than non-bullies. The most prevalent forms of bullying included: being kicked or hit, called names, being threatened or excluded, having belongings violated, or subject to racial slurs. Negative characteristics of bullies may make it difficult to learn about healthy relationship formation which may extend into romantic relationships. If behaviors such as sexual bullying can be identified early, intervening may prevent deviant behavior patterns and dating violence.
This article is a literature review.
Gibbs, D. A., Hawkins, S. R., Clinton-Sherrod, A. M., & Noonan, R. K. (2009). Empowering programs with evaluation technical assistance: Outcomes and lessons learned. Health Promotion Practice, 10, 38S-44S.
This article describes outcomes reported by participants and technical assistance providers of the Evaluation Assistance for Sexual Violence Programs project in 2007. Lessons learned by the technical assistance providers included the importance of: investment in collaborative relationships, maximizing program staff participation, program specific content and form of technical assistance to program preferences, and structured learning with program specific technical assistance. Participating programs identified the following outcomes: increased evaluation capacity in terms of skills, organizational resources, instrument design, and interpretation of data and program improvement that included existing interventions, development of new interventions, increased efficacy of advocating efforts, which all may result in expansion of funding. Recommendations for empowerment evaluations: invest in relationship building, maximize program staff participation, tailor content and form of technical assistance to program preferences, and combine structured and program specific technical assistance.
Data was gathered from a small sample of programs.
Glass, N., Perrin, N., Hanson, G., Bloom, T., Gardner, E., & Campbell, J. C. (2008). Risk for reassault in abusive female same-sex relationships. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 1021-1027.
The purpose of this study was to validate the accuracy of a revised version of the Danger Assessment (DA) instrument in assessing risk for re-assault by an abusive female partner among LBT women. In Phase 1 risk factors from the original DA were reviewed and input was received from victims and perpetrators about factors that were relevant to abusive female same-sex relationships. In Phase 2 the original DA and new risk factor items were evaluated by interviewing a sample of women. The new assessment tool identified several predictors of re-assault: an increase in physical violence, constant jealousy or possessiveness, cohabitation, threats or use of gun by abuser, illegal drug use or abuse of prescription medication by abuser, stalking, failure of individuals to take victim seriously when seeking help, fear of reinforcing negative stereotypes, and secrecy of abuse.
Small sample size limits ability to generalize findings.
Hawkins, S. R., Clinton-Sherrod, A. M., Irvin, N., Hart, L., & Russell, S. J. (2009). Logic models as a tool for sexual violence prevention program development. Health Promotion Practice, 10, 29S-37S.
This article presents two case studies that describe how positive changes can be made in sexual violence prevention programs by developing logic models that accurately describe desired outcomes. One case study described how through the process of developing a logic model there was increased organizational awareness of the importance of understanding the environmental context for program success. The second case study showed how a logic model revealed gaps in organizational programming and possible solutions. Benefits to program development, improvement, and replication were also discussed.
The findings include only the outcomes from two programs.
Johnson, M. C., & Kercher, E. A. (2009). Identifying predictors of negative psychological reactions to stalking victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 866-882.
Data was based on responses to the 2005 Texas Crime Victimization Survey. The purposes of the study were: to identify subgroups of stalking victims based on their negative psychological reactions to being stalked and to compare the subgroups by demographic and stalking-related variables. Three subgroups of victims were identified: high (likely to experience all reactions), medium, and low (low probability of experiencing all reactions other than anger) classes. Those who had a higher probability of experiencing multiple negative outcomes were more likely to be: female, have a prior relationship with the stalker, experience greater variety of stalking behaviors, divorced/separated, and received government assistance. Authors conclude that the number and severity of negative psychological reactions differ among stalking victims.
The definition of stalking used was broad and measures may not have taken into consideration all behaviors and reactions experienced by victims.
Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C. H., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., & Martin, S. L. (2009). College women’s experiences with physically forced, alcohol-or other drug-enabled, and drug-facilitated sexual assault before and since entering college. Journal of American College Health, 57, 639-648.
The Campus Sexual Assault study examined the prevalence of different types of sexual assault experienced by women and the means by which sexual assault was achieved. Data was collected from 5,466 undergraduate women from 2 public, 4- year universities. Participants reported on attempted and completed rape and sexual battery and if the assault occurred by use of physical or threatened force or incapacitation. The findings indicated: approximately 20% of undergraduate women experienced some type of completed sexual assault while in college, 11% while incapacitated, 7.8% experienced alcohol and/or other drug enabled sexual assault. Implications for practice include that campus sexual assault prevention programs should integrate information about substance use into programming.
Findings may not apply to all college women.
Light, D. & Monk-Turner, E. (2008). Circumstances surrounding male sexual assault and rape. Findings from the National Violence against Women Survey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 1849 - 1858.
This study used data from 219 male respondents who disclosed sexual assault or rape victimization during the 1994-1996 National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAW). The respondents were asked questions about the circumstances of their assault including physical injury, penetration, threats, weapon use, alcohol use, help sought after the attack, and report of the attack to police. Findings indicated that 89% reported no physical injury, 67% reported no penetration, 12% reported the assault to police, 16% reported being under the influence during the assault, and 29% sought help after the assault. The authors suggested that the finding suggest that clinical samples may be overrepresentive of men who victims of sexual violence.
The study included a small sample of male victims.
Murray, C. E., & Mobley, K. A. (2009). Empirical research about same-sex intimate partner violence: A methodological review. Journal of Homosexuality, 56, 361-386.
This article is a review of empirical research on same-sex intimate partner violence. Selection criteria were established for published articles in 8 scholarly databases. The studies reviewed and descriptions of how each met or failed to meet selection criteria are included within the article. Some methodological strengths included: appropriate statistical analyses, clarity in the type of abuse measured, appropriate conclusions, and good detail about methodologies to facilitate replication. Weaknesses of methodologies included: failure to use representative sampling procedures, omission of strategies to control for social desirability, and lack of exclusion criteria. The authors make several recommendations for future research.
Studies in this review included those published between 1995 and 2006 and focused on adult (18 and over) populations.
Parkhill, M. R., Abbey, A., & Jacques-Tiura, A. (2009). How do sexual assault characteristics vary as a function of perpetrators level of intoxication? Addictive Behaviors, 34, 331-333.
Participants were 107 men who indicated that they used coercive strategies to force different types of sex on women since the age of 14. Alcohol consumption, sexual assault perpetration, and men’s perceptions of one assault were examined. Men identified as heavy drinking perpetrators were more likely to perceive the incident as serious, attributed responsibility to themselves, and reported that they learned something from the incident. Results indicated that alcohol may provide a perpetrator an excuse for their behaviors. Heavy drinking perpetrators misperceived sexual intentions for longer periods of time before assault, used more isolating and controlling behaviors during interactions with victims, used more physical force, and perpetrated more severe assaults. Only 4% of perpetrators reported that they did not know the victim. Implications for practice included that sexual assault prevention programs should discuss the effects that alcohol has on cognitive distortions, perceptions of women, and use of aggression.
The sample was largely African American (57%) and 40% were classified as heavy drinkers.
Potter, S. J., Moynihan, M. M., Stapleton, J. G., & Banyard, V. L. (2009). Empowering bystanders to prevent campus violence against women. A preliminary evaluation of a poster campaign. Violence Against Women, 15, 106-212.
This exploratory study developed a poster campaign on sexual and intimate partner violence and evaluated its impact on a campus community. Students at a northeastern university were exposed to posters and flyers that modeled prosocial behaviors on a college campus. After one month, 372 students completed an on-line survey that included questions about bystander behavior, views of violence against women on campus, and stages of change. Results indicated that those who saw the poster/flyers reported greater awareness (contemplation) and willingness (action) to reduce sexual violence. However, students that participated in prior prevention programs had higher precomtemplation and action scores than those who reported seeing the posters/flyers.
Previous participation in sexual violence prevention programs had a significant effect on the dependent variable measures.
Smith, D. L. (2009). Disability, gender, and intimate partner violence: Relationships from the behavioral risk factor surveillance system. Sexuality and Disability, 26, 15-28.
Data from the 2005 Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) was used to examine intimate partner sexual and physical abuse experienced by women with disabilities. Results indicated that women with disabilities were about 2 times as likely to be threatened, experience attempted violence, physically abused, and experience unwanted sex. Gender and disability were the most significant factors that increased the likelihood of all forms of violence. Implications for practice included that professionals need to screen and develop interventions to address violence among women with disabilities.
The BRFSS defined disability as “impairment” which may not take into account the full range of disability types.
Weist, M. D., Bryant, Y. U., Dantzler, J., Martin, S., D’Amico, M., Griffith, B., & Gallun, B. (2009). Evaluation of a statewide initiative in the United States to prevent/reduce sexual harassment in schools. Health Education, 109, 112-124.
This paper sought to identify best practices in school-based sexual violence prevention programs by evaluating the Sexual Harassment/Assault Prevention Project (SHAPP). Evaluation of this program consisted of 3 phases: review of curricula used by participating communities, survey of school personnel on best practices and challenges, and a comparison between a SHAPP middle school and comparable middle school not involved in the prevention initiative. Findings suggested that the school who participated in the SHAPP program reported a more positive school climate, increased sense of safety, and decreased incidents of sexual harassment/assault and bullying.
Program evaluation was limited to two schools. There were several demographic differences between the school that received the intervention (SHAPP) and the school that did not.
White, J. W. & Smith, P. H. (2009). Covariation in the use of physical and sexual intimate partner aggression among adolescent and college-aged men: A longitudinal analysis. Violence Against Women, 15, 24-43.
This longitudinal study investigated physical and sexual aggression of males from high school through four years of college. Data was gathered using a series of surveys from 3 groups of males aged 18-19 who were entering college. Results indicated, 49% of men reported at least 1 incident of physical or sexual aggression and 10.9% reported at least 1 incident of both physical and sexual aggression. The frequency of aggression declined over time but was higher in adolescence and the 2nd year of college. Men who reported being in exclusive relationships reported more physical aggression during the first two years of college. The effect of childhood victimization was strongest during adolescence and decreased over time. Men who witnessed domestic violence or experienced physical punishment during childhood had greater likelihood of co-perpetration. Prior years of perpetration were the best predictors of future perpetration.
It was not determined if co-perpetration is qualitatively or quantitatively different from other forms of perpetration.
White, J. W. (2009). A gendered approach to adolescent dating violence: Conceptual and methodological issues. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 1-15.
This article reviews major research findings to understand the context and process of why an adolescent chooses to use violence or becomes the target of violence in dating relationships. Using the social ecological model as its foundation, authors discuss a new person centered model: Gendered Adolescent Interpersonal Aggression (GAIA). Support for the model is based on the idea that a young person’s sense of self is influenced by adolescent friendships, romantic relationships, family, and other social institutions. Two additions to the social ecological model are suggested: gender and identity. Gender should be considered at each level of the social ecological model. Identity is considered a meta-construct and involves interactions at all levels.
Discussions of implications for practice are limited.
Windle, M. & Mrug, S. (2009). Cross-gender violence perpetration and victimization among early adolescents and associations with attitudes toward dating conflict. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 38, 429-439.
A developmental ecological model was used to examine associations between cross-gender (e.g., female-to-male) violence and attitudes toward dating conflict among 601 fifth grade students. A path model was used to identify multi-variable influences that may predict attitudes toward dating conflict among early adolescents. Girls were more likely than boys to perpetrate cross-gender violence and reported more hostile attitudes toward dating conflict. Those who reported cross-gender victimization stated that they would be more likely to use coercive and abusive methods to resolve conflicts. Boys were more likely to report cross-gender victimization. Parenting, peer, and neighborhood factors contribute to cross-gender violence, but differences were reported between genders. Parental harsh discipline, neighborhood hazards, and lower family income were more significant predictors for boys. Implications for practice included: prevention efforts that target both genders during early adolescence, reduction of disruptive behaviors, and social skills and cognitive-behavioral training to promote prosocial responses to anger.
The path model examined attitudes toward dating conflict not actual dating behaviors.
Wurtele, S. K. (2009). Preventing sexual abuse of children in the twenty-first century: Preparing for challenges and opportunities. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 18, 1-18.
This article presents the magnitude of the problem and consequences of child sexual abuse (CSA), a history of personal safety education and evidence about effectiveness of child-focused programs, and recommendations for expansion and alternative approaches to primary prevention of CSA. Recommendations for a comprehensive approach to primary prevention include: strategies that target children/youth, parents, professionals, and general public. Child/youth-focused programs should focus on potential perpetrators and include information about CSA in curricula that promote healthy sexuality and healthy relationships.
The research conducted on the effectiveness of CSA prevention is limited.