The study sample consisted of 268 primarily low income, African-American (77%) female veterans and reservists seeking medical care at a VA clinic. Out of 104 sexual assaults described, 38% occurred while a woman was in military service, and 82% of those were committed by a military peer or supervisor. Similar numbers of victims of military and non-military assault sought medical treatment after an attack. Although military medical providers engaged in fewer secondary victimization behaviors than non-military providers, victims were more likely to have negative feelings after treatment by military medical personnel. Military victims were more likely to have reported the assault to legal personnel (59%) than non-military victims (26%). Both groups experienced similar overall levels of legal secondary victimization. All victims who encountered any secondary victimization behaviors reported more post-traumatic stress symptoms. In light of the high prevalence rates, the researchers recommended that the VA expand services such as the Women Veterans’ Comprehensive Health Centers to create environments where women can receive respectful and appropriate treatment.
These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on original papers published within the last 6 years. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona. To conduct an individual search or locate older articles use the Search Summary Database which includes over 600 articles related to sexual violence.
Secondary Victimization
Campbell, R. & Raja, S. (2005). The sexual assault and secondary victimization of female veterans: Help-seeking experiences with military and civilian social systems. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 97-106.
Campbell, R. (2006). Rape survivors’ experiences with the legal and medical systems: Do rape victim advocates make a difference? Violence Against Women, 12, 30-45.
This study looked at women who were treated in emergency rooms after reporting rape. Two hospitals were included in the study: one had a policy of paging a rape crisis advocate when a victim arrived, and the other did not. Participants included 36 women who worked with rape victim advocates and 45 who did not. Survivors were asked about medical and legal services that were offered, secondary victimization behaviors by medical and law enforcement staff, and their emotional responses to the secondary victimization. Victims who worked with advocates had more police reports taken (59% vs. 41%) and were less likely to experience secondary victimization behaviors from medical and legal personnel. They were more likely to be offered emergency contraception (33% vs. 14%) and information about/treatment for STDs. They were less likely to blame themselves for the assault (54% vs. 82%) and less reluctant to seek further help (67% vs. 91%). The author recommended that rape crisis centers continue to work with medical and legal systems to streamline response systems and increase the use of advocate services.
Chiodo, D., Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C., Hughes, R., & Jaffe, P. (2009). Impact of sexual harassment victimization by peers on subsequent adolescent victimization and adjustment: A longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45, 246-252.
Gender differences were examined in the prevalence and type of sexual harassment victimization experienced by 1734 ninth grade students in 23 schools. Data was collected on victimization experiences and adjustments during 9th and 11th grade. Findings indicated that both females and males that experienced sexual harassment in grade 9 were more than 2 times as likely to report it again in grade 11. The type of sexual harassment experienced differed across genders. Males reported homosexual slurs and receiving unwanted sexual pictures, photos, and messages while females reported unwanted comments, gestures, and touch. Victimization experienced by girls in grade 9 was associated with increased risk of self-harm, suicidal thoughts, maladaptive dieting, early dating, substance use, and unsafe feelings at school. Similar associations were reported by males, except for maladaptive dieting and self-harm behaviors. Violence delinquency perpetration was significantly predicted by victimization in grade 9 for both males and females.
Study was conducted in Canada.
Glass, N., Perrin, N., Hanson, G., Bloom, T., Gardner, E., & Campbell, J. C. (2008). Risk for reassault in abusive female same-sex relationships. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 1021-1027.
The purpose of this study was to validate the accuracy of a revised version of the Danger Assessment (DA) instrument in assessing risk for re-assault by an abusive female partner among LBT women. In Phase 1 risk factors from the original DA were reviewed and input was received from victims and perpetrators about factors that were relevant to abusive female same-sex relationships. In Phase 2 the original DA and new risk factor items were evaluated by interviewing a sample of women. The new assessment tool identified several predictors of re-assault: an increase in physical violence, constant jealousy or possessiveness, cohabitation, threats or use of gun by abuser, illegal drug use or abuse of prescription medication by abuser, stalking, failure of individuals to take victim seriously when seeking help, fear of reinforcing negative stereotypes, and secrecy of abuse.
Small sample size limits ability to generalize findings.
Hughes, T. L., Szalacha, L. A., Johnson, T. P., Kinnison, K. E., Wilsnack, S. C., Cho, Y. (2010). Sexual victimization and hazardous drinking among heterosexual and sexual minority women. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 1152-1156.
This study examined the association between sexual victimization and hazardous drinking among 953 adult women. Data was collected from the 2001 National Study of Health and Life Experiences of Women and the 2000 Chicago Health and Life Experiences (CHLEW) study. Hazardous drinking, childhood sexual abuse (CSA), adult sexual assault (ASA), and revicitimization was compared among women who identified as exclusively heterosexual (n=502), mostly heterosexual (n=32), bisexual (n=16), mostly lesbian (n=100), and exclusively lesbian (n=303). Exclusively lesbian, mostly lesbian, and bisexual women were more likely to report early drinking onset, CSA, and higher hazardous drinking levels than exclusively heterosexual women. Mostly heterosexual women were more likely to report ASA. Women who reported both CSA and ASA reported higher levels of hazardous drinking. Health care providers should be aware that women with alcohol-related problems may have histories of sexual victimization and providers should understand that sexual minority women may be at higher risk of hazardous drinking.
The CHLEW study targeted racial/ethnic minorities and those who are low income living in Chicago and the sample may not be representative of women living in other cities.
Katz, J., May, P., Sorensen, S., & DelTosta, J. (2010). Sexual revictimization during women’s first year of college: Self-blame and sexual refusal assertiveness as possible mechanisms. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, online.
Factors that may increase risk of victimization among 87 female undergraduates from a college in Western New York were examined. Victimization experiences were measured at the beginning of the school year (Time 1) and once at the end of the school year (Time 2). Sexual victimization included unwanted sexual contact, sexual coercion, attempted and completed rape. Findings indicated that at Time 1, 46% reported one or more episodes of sexual victimization, most of which was experienced during high school. Approximately 67% of those who reported victimization at Time 1 reported victimization at Time 2. Women who reported victimization at Time 2 reported greater behavioral and characterological self-blame and lower sexual refusal skills at Time 1 compared to women who did not report college victimization. Prevention programs should address self-blame, sexual assertiveness, and rape myths.
Reports of initial victimization were higher among the sample than similar studies.
Kernsmith, P. D. & Kernsmith R. M. (2009). Gender differences in responses to sexual coercion. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 19, 902-914.
This study examined how prior abuse or victimization impacted reactions to sexual coercion with 732 undergraduate males and females from 2 Midwestern universities. Females reported higher coercion victimization on both the lies and obligation scales than males. Common emotional responses by females included: anger, being turned off, irritated, and disappointed. Males were more likely to report positive emotional responses to coercion. The most common emotional response reported by males were mixed feelings and ambivalence. Those who experienced more sexual coercion, intimate partner violence, and prior sexual abuse were more likely to report negative responses. The findings suggest that prevention programs should include skills building about healthy communication and boundaries and programs should be gender-neutral.
Definitions of unwanted sex versus nonconsensual sex may vary by individual.
Littleton, H., Axsom, D., & Grills-Taquechel, A. (2009). Sexual assault victim’s acknowledgement status and revictimization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 34-42.
The purpose of this study was to compare revictimization risk behaviors among women who labeled an experience as rape or victimization (acknowledged) with those who did not (unacknowledged). Data was collected from 334 women from 3 southeastern universities using an online survey. A 6-month follow-up survey was completed by 105 of the participants. Results indicated that unacknowledged assaults were less violent and less likely involved physical force and threats. Unacknowledged victims were more likely to be binge drinking at the time of the assault and more likely to continue a relationship with the perpetrator following the assault. Significant group differences were found only in reports of attempted rape at the follow-up period. Future research should examine how a victim’s acknowledgment status and risk behaviors, specifically alcohol use, may impact sexual revictimization.
Demographic diversity between groups may have attributed to differences in revictimization rates.
Miller, A. K., Markman, K. D., & Handley, I. M. (2007). Self-blame among sexual assault victims prospectively predicts revictimization: A perceived sociolegal context model of risk. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29, 129-136.
The study explores relationships between sexual assault, self-blame and sexual revictimization (SRV). Participants of the study consisted of 144 undergraduate females at a Midwestern University who reported adolescent sexual assault experiences occurring after age 14. Each participant was administered the SRV version of the SES and the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory. Participants also completed interviews about their sexual assault experiences and a survey on legal perceptions of heterosexual interaction resulting in intercourse. All participants completed the SRV version of the SES 4.2 months later. This investigation found that the degree of self-blame women experience following a sexual assault can influence subsequent victimization. Women who have greater perceptions that the law permits men’s behavior of engaging in nonconsensual sex are more likely to blame themselves for their assault or that they failed to prevent their assaults.
The study included a sample that was primarily Caucasian (96.4%). Caucasian women may have different legal perceptions of sexual assault than women from different ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic backgrounds.
Mouilso, E. R., Calhoun, K. S., & Gidycz, C. A. (2010). Effects of participation in a sexual assault risk reduction program on psychological distress following revictimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, DOI: 10.1177/0886260510365862.
This study examined the effects that a sexual assault risk reduction program had on psychological distress among women 450 undergraduate females from a large Southeastern university and a midsized Midwestern university. Participants were divided into an intervention and control group. One hundred forty-seven women reported a history of attempted or completed rape prior to the study and at least one incidence of sexual victimization (any type of unwanted sexual contact) during a 4-month follow-up period. Findings indicated that women who participated in the intervention experienced a reduction in psychological distress and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and reported less severe revictimization. The intervention did not appear to impact the frequency of revictimization. Participants in the intervention group reported less characterological and behavioral self-blame. Risk reductions programs that address self-blame and avoidance coping strategies may be effective at reducing distress following victimization or revictimization.
Revictimization at follow-up was measured as any unwanted sexual contact which may have resulted in higher prevalence rates for revictimization.
Thapar-Bjorkert, S., & Morgan, K. J. (2010). “But sometimes I think…they put themselves in the situation”: Exploring blame and responsibility in interpersonal violence. Violence Against Women, 16, 32-59.
Institutional discourses that may support a culture of blame and responsibility aimed at female victims of violence were examined. In 2005, unstructured interviews were conducted with 15 volunteers (13 women, 2 men) who worked with female victims of violence in the United Kingdom. The narratives were divided into 3 themes: burden of responsibility placed on women, surveillance and normalizing judgments, and institutional attitudes. The analyses suggested that even though organizational rhetoric, policies, and measures provided immediate assistance to victims they often did not address wider social attitudes that may cause an ambiguous response from the volunteer toward the victim’s experience. Authors suggested that the civic-political culture should move away from a produced victim and focus on the social attitudes that may generate a victim.
All volunteers interviewed were recruited from a single branch of victim services during one volunteer meeting.
Yamawaki, N. (2007). Rape perception and the function of ambivalent sexism and gender-role traditionality. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22, 406-423.
At a private university in the Rocky Mountain region, 126 undergraduate males and females were assigned to a stranger or date-rape scenario and asked to complete several surveys to assess the impact that BS, HS, and GRT had on external observer’s rape perceptions and the relationship between ambivalent sexism (AS) and GRT. Three forms of secondary victimization were assessed in the study: minimization of seriousness of rape, blaming the rape victim, and excusing the rapist. The results support previous findings that BS, HS, and GRT significantly influence external observers’ rape perceptions. External observers use different reasons to judge the rape incident, victim, and rapist. Observers minimize rape, blame the victim, and excuse the rapist more in cases of date rape than stranger rape. Those who score higher on HS scale deny victim’s psychological damage, level of violence, and the fact that the incident was rape.
May not be able to generalize results of the study.
Young, B. J., & Furman, W. (2008). Interpersonal factors in the risk for sexual victimization and its recurrence during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 37, 297-309.
Data was collected from 200 tenth graders from a Western metropolitan area to examine developmental patterns of sexual aggression in adolescence and determine risk associated with interpersonal risk factors. Measures that were taken included; sexual victimization, romantic styles, romantic competency, sexual experience, and rejection sensitivity. The findings showed that 65% of those who indicated an initial incident of aggression reported a repeat incident. Repeated incidents followed on average of 1.33 years after initial incident. Risk factors seem to be consistent across time which may increase vulnerability to sexual aggression.
It is unknown how interactions between interpersonal variables may influence risk for sexual victimization.