The author reviewed published articles on sexual violence in rural areas in the United States. The emphasis of the studies included prevalence, risk factors, attitudes, and factors affecting reporting and service utilization. Prevalence rates of forced and coerced sexual intercourse varied by study, from 10% to 30% among females, and 5% among males (most studies did not include males). Non-stranger assaults accounted for 78%-100% of all assaults. A major factor contributing to risk and barriers to reporting and accessing services in rural areas was high acquaintance density, making non-stranger assault more likely and confidentiality difficult. For example, victims were likely to know or be related to law enforcement and medical personnel. Physical isolation and lack of resources, such as phone service and transportation, were also identified as risks and barriers. High levels of victim-blaming attitudes were found in rural areas, contributing to victims’ self-blame and stigmatization in their communities. Two studies reported decreased levels of victim-blaming attitudes after educational interventions. Suggested areas for future research include characteristics of rural survivors (e.g., prior victimization, income, and race/ethnicity). Studies should also examine risk factors and the physical and mental health impacts of sexual violence in rural populations.
These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on original papers published within the last 6 years. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona. To conduct an individual search or locate older articles use the Search Summary Database which includes over 600 articles related to sexual violence.
Risk
Annan, S. L. (2006). Sexual violence in rural areas. Family & Community Health, 29, 164-168.
This is a review article.
Bossarte, R. M., Simon, T. R., & Swahn, M. H. (2008). Clustering of adolescent dating violence, peer violence, and suicidal behavior. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 815-833.
Data was collected in 2004 from 1,653 students from a racially and ethnically diverse high-risk high school. A survey was administered to measure dating violence, same-sex violence, and suicidal behavior. A 5 cluster method was used to identify groups of individuals with patterns of co-occurring traits or behaviors. The clusters were Low Violence, Peer Context, Dating Context, Psychological Abuse, and High Violence. Findings suggested that adolescents involved in general violence may be involved in dating and same-sex peer violence and youth that report the highest levels of interpersonal violence are at greater risk for suicidal behaviors.
Sample included youth who reported perpetration of violence or abuse from a high-risk urban school and there are limitations based on methodological analysis.
Bouffard, L. A., & Bouffard, J. A. (2010). Understanding men’s perceptions of risks and rewards in a date rape scenario. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, (online).
The purpose of this study was to examine how college men’s rape supportive attitudes are expressed in both intention to commit date rape and perceptions of the risk and rewards of the behavior. Participants included 129 male undergraduates from a university in the eastern United States. Participants were assigned to 1 of 3 conditions, presented with a hypothetical scenario, and asked to consider positive and negative outcomes of the scenario. One significant risk/reward pattern was identified: men who recognize a date rape situation as potentially criminal and yet report potential for continuing romantic or sexual relationships with a woman. Rape myths were more likely to be endorsed by this group and the group did not view the legal consequences as a real risk. To achieve long-term attitudinal and behavioral changes, prevention programs should focus on changing the perceptions of risks and rewards of sexual aggression.
The study did not measure prior sexual aggression which may shape perceptions of risks and rewards.
Daigle, L. E., Fisher, B., & Cullen, F. T. (2008). The violent and sexual victimization of college women: Is repeat victimization a problem? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 1296-1313.
The study analyzed data from two national surveys on victimization of women enrolled in colleges and universities: the National College Women Violent Victimization (NCWVV; n=4,432) and the National College Women Sexual Victimization (NCWSV; n=4,446). Respondents were asked if they had experienced violent or sexual victimization during the school year, and when the incident occurred. This allowed researchers to determine the sequence in which repeat victimizations occurred. Almost half of the victims experienced about three-quarters of all victimizations. Victims were at an elevated risk of re-experiencing violence within a few months following the first incident. Repeat incidents usually were the same kind of violence as the initial incident. Of non-sexual violent attacks, only simple assault carried a risk of repeated violence, and was the only type of violence more likely to be perpetrated by a stranger. The only victim behavior associated with single victimization was the use of forceful physical resistance. Because most victims who report their attack do so to friends (rather than parents or authorities), researchers recommend including information on risks of repeat victimization in college sexual assault prevention education programs.
The study was not able to determine if repeat victims were attacked by the same perpetrators during subsequent incidents; this information would be useful in planning prevention education.
DeKeseredy, W. S., Rogness, M., & Schwartz, M. D. (2004). Separation/divorce sexual assault: The current state of social scientific knowledge. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9, 675-691.
Existing research on separation/divorce sexual assault is discussed covering definitions, prevalence rates and risk factors, and theoretical contributions of the contemporary research along with proposed recommendations concerning potential research on this topic. For example, the authors contend that multiple measures of sexual assault should be incorporated into any methodology examining separation/divorce sexual assault. Likewise, the role that societal patriarchy and gender inequality play in exacerbating “male proprietariness” (p. 686) may be one of the key factors that make exiting an abusive relationship even more challenging. Indeed, while support and intervention for victims of marital rape are woefully lacking, assistance to victims of separation/divorce sexual assault are presumed to be even less available.
Flack Jr., W. F., Caron, M. L., Leinen, S. J., Breitenbach, K. G., Barber, A. M., Brown, E. N. et al. (2008). "The red zone": Temporal risk for unwanted sex among college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence,23, 1177 - 1196.
There is a popular perception that inexperienced college freshman women are at greatest risk for sexual assault, especially during the first few weeks or months of the fall semester. To test this, the researchers surveyed first-year (n=104) and second- year (n=101) male and female college students about unwanted experiences of sexual contact. Those who had experienced unwanted sex were asked to place the event(s) in one of 7 time periods. Women reported significantly higher rates of unwanted sex than men (44% vs. 7%). Most experiences involved the consumption of alcohol (81%) and almost one-third of the offenders were well-known to their victims (all were students at the university). Relatively more unwanted touching experiences occurred during the last time period—the second year from about one month after the start of school to the middle of October—than any other time. Researchers were told by sorority members that this corresponded to the period called “pledging”, during which young (second-year) women were invited to frequent fraternity parties at which alcohol was consumed.
This study was conducted at a small Eastern liberal arts college. College cultures and activities vary widely, and results of this study might have been different at a campus with different characteristics.
Foshee, V. A., Reyes, H. L. M., & Ennett, S. T. (2010). Examination of sex and race differences in longitudinal predictors of the initiation of adolescent dating violence perpetration. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 19, 492-516.
This study examined longitudinal predicators of dating violence perpetration among 1,666 adolescents in the 8th, 9th, and 10th grades from public schools in 3 nonmetropolitan counties in North Carolina. Participants completed questionaries from 2003 to 2004. Findings indicated that 16% (n=270) initiated dating violence between assessments and friends using dating violence was a predicator for perpetration among all groups. Race was found to be a predicator of dating violence perpetration, but sex was not. Black adolescents were more likely to initiate dating violence perpetration than White adolescents. Anxiety predicted perpetration by White adolescents and anger predicated perpetration among Black adolescents. Variables that predicated perpetration by girls included depression, marijuna use, and aggression against peers. Selective interventions for high-risk groups are warranted. Interventions targeted at girls should address depression, correlates and causes of depression, substance use, and aggression against peers.
A single item to assess dating violence was used; other racial/ethnic groups were not included in the study.
Franklin, C. A. (2010). Physically forced, alcohol-induced, and verbally coercive sexual victimization: Assessing risk factors among university women. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38, 149-159.
This study examined 3 different forms of sexual assault among 185 undergraduate college women from a northwestern university in 2007. The 3 forms of sexual assault included: threats of force and/or force that resulted in completed rape, alcohol-induced sexual assault, and verbal coercion that resulted in unwanted sex. Women who reported verbal coercion that resulted in unwanted sex were more likely to report: delayed risk responses, increased number of sex partners, earlier age of first intercourse, and increased rape myth acceptance. Women who reported experiencing alcohol-induced sexual assault were more likely to report: risky sexual practices, increased number of sex partners, and early age of first intercourse. Women who reported force and/or threats of force that resulted in completed rape reported: increased number of sex partners and younger age of first intercourse. Rape prevention strategies used on college campuses should be tailored to focus on specific risks associated with each type of sexual victimization.
The socio-economic status used was limited: 3 items measured verbal coercion, 3 items assessed completed rape, and only 1 item assessed alcohol-induced sexual assault.
Glass, N., Perrin, N., Hanson, G., Bloom, T., Gardner, E., & Campbell, J. C. (2008). Risk for reassault in abusive female same-sex relationships. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 1021-1027.
The purpose of this study was to validate the accuracy of a revised version of the Danger Assessment (DA) instrument in assessing risk for re-assault by an abusive female partner among LBT women. In Phase 1 risk factors from the original DA were reviewed and input was received from victims and perpetrators about factors that were relevant to abusive female same-sex relationships. In Phase 2 the original DA and new risk factor items were evaluated by interviewing a sample of women. The new assessment tool identified several predictors of re-assault: an increase in physical violence, constant jealousy or possessiveness, cohabitation, threats or use of gun by abuser, illegal drug use or abuse of prescription medication by abuser, stalking, failure of individuals to take victim seriously when seeking help, fear of reinforcing negative stereotypes, and secrecy of abuse.
Small sample size limits ability to generalize findings.
Groce, N. E., & Trasi, R. (2004). Rape of individuals with disability: AIDS and the folk belief of virgin cleansing. The Lancet, 363, 1663-1664.
This paper outlines the central issues surrounding the rape of disabled individuals as perpetrated by individuals infected with HIV. One study cited documented the virgin rape of disabled persons in 14 out of 21 countries assessed. Disabled people are particularly at risk of victimization given the specifics of their respective disability (i.e., blind, deaf, physically impaired, or intellectually disabled) as well as the challenges and barriers they face within the legal environment. For example, in the event that they do try to disclose their victimization, officials often reject their reports, assuming them to be confused. In some regions, individuals with disability are not even permitted to file a police report or to appear in court. All of these factors – in addition to the presence of a disability alone – enhances their level of risk and vulnerability to being victimized within this folk belief system.
Gross, A. M., Winslett, A., Roberts, M., & Gohm, C. L. (2006). An examination of sexual violence against college women. Violence Against Women, 12, 288-300.
The sample consisted of 935 undergraduate female students who were recruited from introductory psychology classes and on-campus sororities. A questionnaire was administered to participants in small groups. The results showed that 27% of the women had experienced unwanted sexual contact since enrolling in college. Thirty-seven percent of the sample reported multiple forced sexual experiences. African-American women reported higher rates of sexual victimization compared to White women. Survivors and perpetrators reported high rates of alcohol consumption during the time of the sexual experience. Boyfriends were the most common perpetrator of sexual aggression. Implications for prevention efforts are discussed.
Hensley, C., Koscheski, M., & Tewksbury, R. (2005). Examining the characteristics of male sexual assault targets in a southern maximum-security prison. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 667-679.
In this paper, the authors present an overview of the literature concerning sexual victimization among inmates whereby the purpose of this study is to elucidate demographic and behavioral characteristics of targets of sexual assault within correctional facilities. The sample included 142 inmates from within a maximum-security correctional facility for men. Inmates were given a questionnaire that included items addressing consensual inmate sex and sexual coercion/assault. Results demonstrated that, while incarcerated, 18.3% of the sample had been sexual targets and 8.5% had been sexually assaulted. Additional findings are presented along with a discussion of the significance of sexual orientation as a risk factor for sexual victimization during incarceration.
Howard, D. E., Wang, M. Q., & Yan, F. (2008). Psychosocial factors associated with report of physical dating violence victimization among U.S. adolescent males. Adolescence, 43, 449-460.
This cross-sectional study examined correlates of physical dating violence among 6,528 adolescent males. Data was obtained from the 2005 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). Physical dating violence was reported among 10% of the respondents and prevalence estimates increased with school grade. Male youth who reported being the victim of physical violence by a boyfriend or girlfriend over one year were more likely to report emotional distress, violence-related behaviors, substance use, and risky sexual behaviors. Hispanic and Black adolescents reported higher prevalence of physical violence compared to White adolescents. Being a victim of physical dating violence was greater for males who reported sad or hopeless feelings, engaged in physical fights, carried a gun, and participated in risky sexual behaviors.
Results are based on cross-sectional data and as a result causality cannot be determined.
Hughes, T. L., Szalacha, L. A., Johnson, T. P., Kinnison, K. E., Wilsnack, S. C., Cho, Y. (2010). Sexual victimization and hazardous drinking among heterosexual and sexual minority women. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 1152-1156.
This study examined the association between sexual victimization and hazardous drinking among 953 adult women. Data was collected from the 2001 National Study of Health and Life Experiences of Women and the 2000 Chicago Health and Life Experiences (CHLEW) study. Hazardous drinking, childhood sexual abuse (CSA), adult sexual assault (ASA), and revicitimization was compared among women who identified as exclusively heterosexual (n=502), mostly heterosexual (n=32), bisexual (n=16), mostly lesbian (n=100), and exclusively lesbian (n=303). Exclusively lesbian, mostly lesbian, and bisexual women were more likely to report early drinking onset, CSA, and higher hazardous drinking levels than exclusively heterosexual women. Mostly heterosexual women were more likely to report ASA. Women who reported both CSA and ASA reported higher levels of hazardous drinking. Health care providers should be aware that women with alcohol-related problems may have histories of sexual victimization and providers should understand that sexual minority women may be at higher risk of hazardous drinking.
The CHLEW study targeted racial/ethnic minorities and those who are low income living in Chicago and the sample may not be representative of women living in other cities.
Light, D. & Monk-Turner, E. (2008). Circumstances surrounding male sexual assault and rape. Findings from the National Violence against Women Survey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 1849 - 1858.
This study used data from 219 male respondents who disclosed sexual assault or rape victimization during the 1994-1996 National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAW). The respondents were asked questions about the circumstances of their assault including physical injury, penetration, threats, weapon use, alcohol use, help sought after the attack, and report of the attack to police. Findings indicated that 89% reported no physical injury, 67% reported no penetration, 12% reported the assault to police, 16% reported being under the influence during the assault, and 29% sought help after the assault. The authors suggested that the finding suggest that clinical samples may be overrepresentive of men who victims of sexual violence.
The study included a small sample of male victims.
Livingston, J. A., Hequembourg, M. T., & VanZile-Tamsen, C. (2007). Unique aspects of adolescent sexual victimization experiences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 331-343.
Between 2000 and 2002 in Erie County, New York in-person interviews were conducted with 1,014 women between the ages of 18 and 30 to investigate factors that may lead to an increased vulnerability to sexual aggression during adolescence. Of the 1,014 women interviewed, women who indicated sexual victimization since age 14, 319 completed a brief event-based interview. The study used quantitative and qualitative methods to pursue two goals: identify contexts in which adolescent girls experience sexual aggression and to identify factors within those contexts that may contribute to vulnerability. The findings indicated that the following were the most common developmental influences: inexperience with sex and dating, social and relationship status concerns, and powerlessness. Sexual victimization was most often experienced in the context of intimate relationships (40%). The second most common was in the context of social gatherings (36%), in which most incidents involved substance use by the perpetrator (82%), the victim (76%), or both.
Sample included retrospective reports from women in one community that had telephones in their homes.
Malamuth, N. M., Addison, T., & Koss, M. (2000). Pornography and sexual aggression: Are there reliable effects and can we understand them? Annual Review of Sex Research, 11, 26-91.
Their responses delineate the arguments and data presented in those commentaries; integrate the findings of several meta-analytic summaries of experimental and naturalistic research; and statistically analyze a large representative sample. The responses support the existence of reliable associations between frequent pornography use and sexually aggressive behaviors, particularly for violent pornography and/or for men at high risk for sexual aggression. The authors suggest that relatively aggressive men interpret and react to the same pornography differently than do non-aggressive men. This perspective can help to integrate the current analyses with studies comparing rapists and non-rapists as well as with cross-cultural research.
McCauley, J. L., Ruggiero, K. J., Resnick, H. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2010). Incapacitated, forcible, and drug/alcohol-facilitated rape in relation to binge drinking, marijuana use, and illicit drug use: A national survey. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23, 132-140.
This study examined relationships between substance abuse and forcible, incapacitated, and drug/alcohol-facilitated rape among 1,998 women between 18 and 34 years old. This study is based on a large national household telephone survey of women in the United States. Findings indicated that 23% of women reported a lifetime experience of rape (forcible 19%, drug/alcohol-facilitated 3%, & incapacitated 5%). Women who experienced incapacitated rape were more likely to report past year binge-drinking and those who reported drug/alcohol-facilitated rape were more likely to report past year marijuana and illicit drug use. Sexual violence risk reduction programs may be more effective if binge drinking interventions were integrated.
The order of onset of substance abuse and a history of rape was not assessed; a causal relationship cannot be shown.
McFarlane, J., Malecha, A., Watson, K., Gist, J., Batten, E., Hall, I. et al. (2005). Intimate partner sexual assault against women: Frequency, health consequences, and treatment outcomes. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 105, 99-108.
Women who had requested orders of protection against abusive partners participated in this descriptive study (N=148). Sixty-eight percent (n=100) reported being sexually assaulted at least once by their partner. Women who were sexually assaulted multiple times reported significantly higher levels of gynecologic problems, including sexually transmitted diseases, than non-sexually assaulted women. Higher PTSD scores were found in women who were sexually assaulted than among those who were only physically assaulted. For either type of assault Latina/Hispanic women had higher PTSD scores than African American or White women. Women were less likely to be reassaulted if they told someone about the assault, contacted police, applied for protection orders, or received medical care. The researchers recommend the adoption of cooperative models that increase victims’ ability to access justice and medical services.
Participants were recruited from a group of women who had applied for protective orders, and may differ from women who do not seek assistance from the justice system. The study relied on self-reports, which are subject to recall errors and omissions.
Messman-Moore, T. L. & Brown, A. L. (2006). Risk perception, rape, and sexual revictimization: A prospective study of college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 159-172.
In this longitudinal study, 262 women completed a series of questionnaires four times over eight months. Rates of sexual victimization and rape experienced by participants were assessed over time. At baseline, 56.8% of the women had already experienced some form of sexual victimization in their lifetime. Participants were asked to read two scenarios ending in rape, one involving a male acquaintance and the other a male stranger (scenarios are presented in the Appendix). Women indicated at what point during the scenario they would feel uncomfortable and when they would leave the situation. During the eight month follow-up period, 43.4% of participants reported some type of unwanted sexual experience, and 10% of the women were raped. Prior victimization and delayed risk response (i.e., leaving the hypothetical situation later in the scenario) were associated with increased likelihood of sexual victimization during the course of the study. The researchers recommended that prevention programs place more emphasis on risk-reduction behaviors rather than risk identification, and that acquaintance rape scenarios should be used more than stranger rape scenarios in sexual violence education programs.
Moracco, K. E., Runyan, C. W., Bowling, J. M., & Earp, J. A. (2007). Women's experiences with violence: A national study. Women's Health Issues, 17, 3-12.
During 1997, telephone interviews were conducted with 1800 US women aged 18 years and over. Women were asked about stalking behaviors, physical assault, and sexual assault that they had experienced both during their adult lives and during the previous year. Data were weighted to account for demographic variations. Consistent with other national surveys such as the National Violence Against Women Survey, about one in six women reported having been sexually assaulted, and the perpetrator was three times more likely to be someone known to them than a stranger. Racial/ethnic differences were also similar to other national findings, with Asian American and white women being less likely to experience violence than all other groups. Other risk factors for having experienced sexual violence included being less than 55 years old (young women aged 18-24 reported the most violence), living in a household that received public assistance, and being lesbian/bisexual.
The sample was restricted to women living in households with telephones. Because the study was cross-sectional, the causal relationship of risk factors to types of violence experienced cannot be explored.
Novik, M. G., Howard, D. E., & Boekeloo, B. O. (2010). Drinking motivations and experiences of unwanted sexual advances among undergraduate students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, DOI: 10.1177/0886260510362884.
This study examined the association between drinking motivations and experiences with unwanted sexual advances among 289 undergraduates from a mid-Atlantic public university. This study was part of a larger project, Peers as Family: Preventing Problem Drinking. An on-line survey was administered to students living in residence halls during the 2007 spring semester. Findings indicated that 15.6% of the sample experienced unwanted sexual advances and females were 2 times as likely as males to report unwanted sexual advances. Students reported that they drank to maintain their image in social situations. Drinking motivations may place individuals in situations where their or someone else’s alcohol use places them at risk for unwanted sexual advances. Prevention programs should include strategies for staying safe in social drinking situations, address factors that motivate students to consume alcohol, build refusal skills, and encourage moderate alcohol consumption.
Only one question in the survey measured the outcome unwanted sexual advances.
Sochting, I., Fairbrother, N., & Koch, W. J. (2004). Sexual assault of women: Prevention efforts and risk factors. Violence Against Women, 10, 73-93.
A review of the body of literature on risk factors for sexual assault is also presented. Strategies for improving rape prevention programs are highlighted and include identifying targets for behavioral change based on risk factors and training women in rape resistance strategies. Results suggested that attitude change was a less effective prevention approach.
Tyler, K. A., & Beal, M. R. (2010). The high-risk environment of homeless young adults: Consequences for physical and sexual victimization. Violence and Victims, 25, 101-115.
This study examined how social environmental factors may contribute to the risk of physical and sexual victimization among 127 homeless (36 female & 91 male) youth in 3 Midwestern cities. Participants ranged from 19-26 years old and 17% identified as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. Findings indicated that sexual victimization since being on the street was associated with panhandling, ever selling sex, and friends trading sex. Physical victimization was associated with age of first run, total number of times they ran away, street time, panhandling, deviant peers, not having a family member close, and selling drugs. Prevention and training programs that address self-esteem and self-efficacy may improve the well-being of homeless youth and lower the risk of victimization. Programs should focus on helping youth find other ways to obtain financial stability.
The study included a small sample of homeless youth in the Midwest and their experiences may not be generalizable to other regions of the country.
Wells, M. & Mitchell, K. J. (2008). How do high-risk youth use the internet? Characteristics and implications for prevention. Child Maltreatment, 13, 227-234.
Data from the Second Youth Internet Survey in 2005 examined youth’s experiences with online harassment, unwanted sexual solicitation, and unwanted exposure to sexual material. Participants included 1,500 youth between the ages of 10 to 17 and caregivers in each household. High-risk youth (those who reported experiencing sexual or physical abuse or high parent conflict in past year) differed from other youth by age, race/ethnicity, and use of Internet on cell phones. They talked with friends more online, engaged in aggressive online acts, and received aggressive sexual solicitations. Youth that reported receiving aggressive sexual solicitation were 2.5 times as likely to have experienced physical abuse, sexual abuse, or high parent conflict. Targeted prevention efforts are needed with high-risk youth. Professionals who work with high-risk youth should assess youth who have experienced maltreatment offline for online victimization.
Sample excluded youth who did not perceive sexualized messages or solicitations as unwanted.
Wolak, J., Finkelhor, D., Mitchell, K. J., & Ybarra, M. L. (2008). Online "predators" and their victims: Myths, realities, and implications for prevention and treatment. American Psychologist, 63, 111-128.
This article summarizes current research on online sexual victimization and compares it to media accounts. The authors identify the known characteristics of online crimes, victims, and offenders, using data from the nationally representative Youth Internet Safety Surveys (YISS) and the National Juvenile Online Victimization Study (N-JOV). The YISS studies surveyed Internet users aged 10-17, and the N-JOV study collected information from law enforcement agencies on Internet-related sex crimes with underage victims.
The authors note that only 5% of crimes from the N-JOV study involved the use of force, and none involved children under the age of 12. They suggest that the emotional immaturity and strong sexual feelings of young adolescents may lead them to develop romantic attachments to people they meet online. The authors point out that traditional therapeutic treatment that emphasizes recovery from abuse may not be appropriate for youth who do not identify as victims, and that new models need to be developed. They recommend that prevention efforts with adolescents be targeted, age-appropriate, and include frank discussions of sexuality and the hazards of relationships with older people. Finally, they caution that the dynamic and evolving sphere of electronic communication, including text messaging and new online technologies, make continuing research into monitoring online environments essential to prevent victimization.
Young, A., Young, A. & Fullwood, H. (2007). Adolescent online victimization. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 8-9.
In a review of three recent studies, the authors estimated national prevalence of online victimization of youth at 13% for sexual solicitation; 34% for exposure to unwanted sexual material; and 9% for any type of harassment. The majority of incidents was not distressing and was not reported to adults. Risk factors for online victimization included older age (youth 14-17 were at higher risk than younger children) and gender (girls were more likely to experience sexual solicitation or harassment than boys). In one study, 60% of youth gave out personal information in an online questionnaire or form. About 45% gave that information to someone they had met online. Possible prevention strategies include frank discussion by adults about Internet victimization so that youth are better equipped to avoid it and deal with it if it happens. The authors recommended making youth aware of the possible consequences of sharing personal information online. Adults can also prepare youth to take action if they are victimized: removing themselves from the situation; changing screen name; and reporting the incident to prevent others from being victimized.
Young, B. J., & Furman, W. (2008). Interpersonal factors in the risk for sexual victimization and its recurrence during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 37, 297-309.
Data was collected from 200 tenth graders from a Western metropolitan area to examine developmental patterns of sexual aggression in adolescence and determine risk associated with interpersonal risk factors. Measures that were taken included; sexual victimization, romantic styles, romantic competency, sexual experience, and rejection sensitivity. The findings showed that 65% of those who indicated an initial incident of aggression reported a repeat incident. Repeated incidents followed on average of 1.33 years after initial incident. Risk factors seem to be consistent across time which may increase vulnerability to sexual aggression.
It is unknown how interactions between interpersonal variables may influence risk for sexual victimization.