The article provides a comparison of annual incident rates of rape and physical assault against women as estimated by the National Violence Against Women Survey; co-sponsored by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Institute of Justice and the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) sponsored by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). The author indicates that the data sets were made as comparable as possible via several data restrictions. These restrictions included restricting the NCVS data to include only incidents of rape (to the exclusion of other sexual assaults) and physical assault against women 18 years of age and older. The methodological differences of each survey, that made comparisons tenuous, are described and recommendations for policy are provided.
These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on original papers published within the last 6 years. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona. To conduct an individual search or locate older articles use the Search Summary Database which includes over 600 articles related to sexual violence.
Prevalence
Bachman, R. (2000). A comparison of annual incidence rates and contextual characteristics of intimate-perpetrated violence against women from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) and the National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAWS). Violence Against Women, 6, 839-867.
Bachman, R., & Zaykowski, H. (2010). Estimating the magnitude of rape and sexual assault against American Indian and Alaskan Native (AIAN) women. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 43, 199-222.
This study included a methodological review of the literature that measured the magnitude of rape against AI/AN women. The authors compared the contextual characteristics of rape and sexual assault victimization among AI/AN women to African American and White women using data from the National Crime Victimization Survey from 1992 to 2005. Findings indicated that AI/AN women were twice as likely to be assaulted by offenders who were armed. AI/AN women were more likely to be hit, physically injured, and require medical care than African American and White women. The majority of assaults against AI/AN women were interracial. Assaults against AI/AN were more likely to be reported to the police, but less likely to result in arrest and conviction than African American and White women. To obtain more reliable estimates, future surveys should over sample AI/AN women.
The sample size of the NCVS was greatly reduced between 1992 and 2005 and the sample size of AI/AN was low making it difficult to make statistical comparisons.
Basile, K. C. & Smith, S. G. (2011). Sexual violence victimization of women: Prevalence, characteristics, and the role of public health and prevention. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. DOI:10.1177/1559827611409512.
This article provides a comprehensive review of the current literature available on factors which increase vulnerability for victimization, impacts of rape and other sexual violence, and approaches to prevent sexual violence. Vulnerability factors include specific demographics, history of child maltreatment, and substance use and abuse. Physical, sexual, and psychological impacts as well as social and relationship impacts are examined. The economic impact of sexual violence is also reviewed citing that women with a history of sexual victimization generally use more medical services than their counterparts and have been found to show a 56% increase of medical visits in the second year after rape. Authors discuss the importance and current practices of primary prevention to reduce prevalence. Health care settings should be used to assess women for vulnerabilities, educate and train young men who display risk factors on bystander intervention strategies, and educate adolescent patients on the risks associated with alcohol.
Primary prevention methods focused on health care settings and did not examine community based interventions.
Basile, K. C., Chen, J., Black, M.C., & Saltzman L. E. (2007). Prevalence and characteristics of sexual violence victimization among U.S. adults, 2001-2003. Violence and Victims, 22, 437-448.
Between 2001 and 2003, a nationally representative telephone survey was conducted by the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control as part of the Second Injury Control and Risk Survey (ICARIS-2). The interviews were either in English or Spanish and targeted U.S. adults (age 18 years or older). With 9,684 completed surveys, the national prevalence rate for sexual victimization by sex, age, race/ethnicity, and type of perpetrator were estimated. The findings indicated that 1.7% of the U.S. population experienced unwanted sexual activity in the past 12 months, 6.5% of the population experienced forced sex at least once in their lifetime, and 34.9% of first victimizations occurred prior to the age of 18 in the United States. The authors recommended more emphasis on primary prevention efforts for children and adolescents as a means to minimize sexual violence.
Methodology and questions differed between the National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAWS )and ICARIS-2; therefore, direct comparison between the two studies should be made cautiously.
Basile, K. C., Swahn, M. H., Chen, J., & Saltzman, L. E. (2006). Stalking in the United States: Recent national prevalence estimates. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 31, 172-175.
Researchers analyzed data from the second national Injury Control and Risk Survey (ICARIS-2; N=9684). Respondents were considered victims of stalking if they had been followed and described the experience as “somewhat dangerous” or “life-threatening.” Based on this definition, an estimated 7 million women and 2 million men in the United States have been stalked. Significant factors associated with having been stalked included being female, white, not married or living as a couple, being employed, and being less than 55 years old. The authors recommended research to develop prevention interventions that can be used jointly by criminal justice and public health to reduce the prevalence of stalking and provide services to victims.
Lack of information on the relationship of the stalker to the victim. Description of stalking was limited to two questions, and stalking tactics used were not assessed.
Beck, A. J., & Hughes, T. A. (2005). Sexual violence reported by correctional authorities, 2004. Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. NCJ 210333. Available online at: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/svrca04.htm
Sexual violence was measured as nonconsensual sexual acts, abusive sexual contacts, staff sexual misconduct, and staff sexual harassment. Results of the review revealed that 5,528 allegations of sexual violence were recorded in 2004, with prison systems reporting 42% of those allegations. Specifically, staff sexual misconduct yielded the highest rate (with 1.31 allegations/1,000 inmates) and inmate-on-inmate nonconsensual acts yielded the second highest rate (1.16 allegations/1,000 inmates). Additional rates are reviewed concerning substantiated incidents, victim and perpetrator demographics, and administrative responses to sexual violence within corrections.
Bryant-Davis, T., Chung, H., & Tillman, S. (2009). From the margins to the center. Ethnic minority women and the mental health effects of sexual assault. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 10, 330-357.
This review article examined sexual assault experiences of African America, Asian American, Latina, and Native American women. Prevalence, risk factors, mental health effects, barriers to disclosure, cultural beliefs, community attitudes, and social support are discussed. Authors concluded that minority women reported greater psychological impacts and barriers to obtaining protection orders and support services. Implications for policy, practice, and research are presented.
The studies reviewed for the article included varying rates and definitions of sexual assault.
Choudhary, E., Coben, J., & Bossarte, R. M. (2009). Adverse health outcomes, perpetrator characteristics, and sexual violence victimization among U.S. adult males. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, online.
The 2005 and 2006 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System surveys were used to examine sexual violence victimization among men. Three categories of sexual violence victimization were used: attempted forced intercourse (AI), completed unwanted intercourse (CI), and attempted and completed victimization (ACI). Prevalence of sexual violence victimization was over 5%. Men who reported AI or CI reported poor mental health, poor life satisfaction, activity limitations, and infrequent emotional or social support. Relationship characteristics suggested that men were more likely to be victimized by friend, acquaintance, or coworker and men who reported ACI were more likely to be victimized by male parent, guardian, or stranger. If a female perpetrator was reported she was more likely to be a former intimate partner. Results suggested that professionals should consider similarities in demographics and associations of health outcomes among male and female victims.
Questions were worded differently in the 2005 and 2006 surveys that could have resulted in different results and interpretations.
Clay-Warner, J., & Burt, C. H. (2005). Rape reporting after reforms: Have times really changed? Violence Against Women, 11, 150-176.
The authors review the current literature on rape reform legislation, changes in reporting behaviors, and factors impacting the reporting of rape. In this study, analyses of data collected from the National Violence Against Women (NVAW) Survey demonstrated that, although rapes committed post-1990 are more likely to have been reported than those committed prior to 1974, despite legislative reforms in this domain simple rapes are under-reported in comparison to aggravated rapes.
DeKeseredy, W. S., Rogness, M., & Schwartz, M. D. (2004). Separation/divorce sexual assault: The current state of social scientific knowledge. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9, 675-691.
Existing research on separation/divorce sexual assault is discussed covering definitions, prevalence rates and risk factors, and theoretical contributions of the contemporary research along with proposed recommendations concerning potential research on this topic. For example, the authors contend that multiple measures of sexual assault should be incorporated into any methodology examining separation/divorce sexual assault. Likewise, the role that societal patriarchy and gender inequality play in exacerbating “male proprietariness” (p. 686) may be one of the key factors that make exiting an abusive relationship even more challenging. Indeed, while support and intervention for victims of marital rape are woefully lacking, assistance to victims of separation/divorce sexual assault are presumed to be even less available.
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., Ormrod, R., & Hamby, S. L. (2010). Trends in childhood violence and abuse exposure. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 164, 238-242.
This study assessed trends of children’s exposure to abuse, violence, and crime victimizations by comparing 2 national telephone surveys. In 2003 and 2008 surveys were conducted with caretakers who had children between 2 to 17 years old and used identical questions. Some of the types of victimizations that declined were: physical assault (53% to 50%), sexual assault (3% to 2%), and exposure to community violence (30% to 25%). Children’s exposure to adult physical abuse increased. Authors suggested that the data analyzed in the study may confirm that child victimization has declined, which is encouraging for those working to create safe environments for children.
Any methodological difference between the surveys (order of questions being asked) may have altered findings.
Fitzgerald, M.M., Danielson, C.K., Saunders, B., & Kilpatrick, D.G. (2007).Youth victimization: Implications for prevention, intervention, and public policy. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 3-7.
The authors review national prevalence rates of youth victimization, including: sexual, emotional or physical abuse; witnessing domestic or community violence; property crime; and excessive punishment. They note gender and race/ethnicity differences in prevalence rates as well as mental health effects. Specific recommendations for assessing risk and resiliency factors as well as screening for victimization in clinical settings are given. The authors discuss the importance of targeted interventions for specific groups, and urge adoption of an ecological model. Finally, the authors discuss how public and organizational policies can help decrease the impact of victimization and increase the availability of supportive services for youth and their families.
Flack Jr., W. F., Caron, M. L., Leinen, S. J., Breitenbach, K. G., Barber, A. M., Brown, E. N. et al. (2008). "The red zone": Temporal risk for unwanted sex among college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence,23, 1177 - 1196.
There is a popular perception that inexperienced college freshman women are at greatest risk for sexual assault, especially during the first few weeks or months of the fall semester. To test this, the researchers surveyed first-year (n=104) and second- year (n=101) male and female college students about unwanted experiences of sexual contact. Those who had experienced unwanted sex were asked to place the event(s) in one of 7 time periods. Women reported significantly higher rates of unwanted sex than men (44% vs. 7%). Most experiences involved the consumption of alcohol (81%) and almost one-third of the offenders were well-known to their victims (all were students at the university). Relatively more unwanted touching experiences occurred during the last time period—the second year from about one month after the start of school to the middle of October—than any other time. Researchers were told by sorority members that this corresponded to the period called “pledging”, during which young (second-year) women were invited to frequent fraternity parties at which alcohol was consumed.
This study was conducted at a small Eastern liberal arts college. College cultures and activities vary widely, and results of this study might have been different at a campus with different characteristics.
Gross, A. M., Winslett, A., Roberts, M., & Gohm, C. L. (2006). An examination of sexual violence against college women. Violence Against Women, 12, 288-300.
The sample consisted of 935 undergraduate female students who were recruited from introductory psychology classes and on-campus sororities. A questionnaire was administered to participants in small groups. The results showed that 27% of the women had experienced unwanted sexual contact since enrolling in college. Thirty-seven percent of the sample reported multiple forced sexual experiences. African-American women reported higher rates of sexual victimization compared to White women. Survivors and perpetrators reported high rates of alcohol consumption during the time of the sexual experience. Boyfriends were the most common perpetrator of sexual aggression. Implications for prevention efforts are discussed.
Hensley, C., Koscheski, M., & Tewksbury, R. (2005). Examining the characteristics of male sexual assault targets in a southern maximum-security prison. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 667-679.
In this paper, the authors present an overview of the literature concerning sexual victimization among inmates whereby the purpose of this study is to elucidate demographic and behavioral characteristics of targets of sexual assault within correctional facilities. The sample included 142 inmates from within a maximum-security correctional facility for men. Inmates were given a questionnaire that included items addressing consensual inmate sex and sexual coercion/assault. Results demonstrated that, while incarcerated, 18.3% of the sample had been sexual targets and 8.5% had been sexually assaulted. Additional findings are presented along with a discussion of the significance of sexual orientation as a risk factor for sexual victimization during incarceration.
Hines, D. (2007). Predictors of sexual coercion against women and men: A multilevel, multinational study of university students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 403-422.
This study had several goals: to investigate rates of forced and verbal sexual coercion and sexual revictimization around the world, association between sexual coercion and adversarial sexual beliefs, and association between childhood sexual abuse and current victimization of sexual aggression in both men and women. Information was gathered from the International Dating Violence Study where questionnaires were completed by students in a classroom setting at various universities around the world. The findings suggest that adversarial beliefs about romantic relationships were associated with sexual coercion for both genders. The sites with high rates of hostile beliefs about the opposite sex observed a higher number of reports of verbal and forced sexual coercion victimization.
This was a correlation study based on a sample of college/university women and men.
Howard, D. E., & Wang, M. Q. (2005). Psychosocial correlates of U.S. adolescents who report a history of forced sexual intercourse. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 372-379.
Participants were given the 2001 national school-based Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). Results showed that 7.7% of high school adolescents had experienced forced sexual violence. Moreover, girls reported a 10.2% lifetime prevalence whereas boys reported a 5.1% lifetime prevalence of forced sex. Additional results yielded associations between a history of forced sexual violence and suicidal thoughts and behaviors as well as substance abuse and other risky behaviors. The authors emphasize the need for clinical applications of these findings and recognize the issue of forced sexual intercourse among adolescents as a growing public health concern.
Howard, D. E., Wang, M. Q., & Yan, F. (2008). Psychosocial factors associated with report of physical dating violence victimization among U.S. adolescent males. Adolescence, 43, 449-460.
This cross-sectional study examined correlates of physical dating violence among 6,528 adolescent males. Data was obtained from the 2005 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). Physical dating violence was reported among 10% of the respondents and prevalence estimates increased with school grade. Male youth who reported being the victim of physical violence by a boyfriend or girlfriend over one year were more likely to report emotional distress, violence-related behaviors, substance use, and risky sexual behaviors. Hispanic and Black adolescents reported higher prevalence of physical violence compared to White adolescents. Being a victim of physical dating violence was greater for males who reported sad or hopeless feelings, engaged in physical fights, carried a gun, and participated in risky sexual behaviors.
Results are based on cross-sectional data and as a result causality cannot be determined.
Ilies, R., Hauserman, N., Schwochau, S., & Stibal, J. (2003). Reported incidence rates of work-related sexual harassment in the United States: Using meta-analysis to explain reported rate disparities. Personnel Psychology, 56, 607-631.
Researchers investigated the extent of sexual harassment, as measured by direct query and behavioral experiences, as well as the extent of the difference in incidence, as estimated by the use of these two sampling methods. Yet another auxiliary goal for researchers involved comparing possible differences between convenience and probability samples. Lastly, researchers hypothesized that structured bureaucratic organizations would tend to have more sexual harassment than organizations that are not as hierarchical. Results revealed that measures focused on assessing sexual harassment through direct questioning, combined with probability sampling, led to considerably lower estimates of sexual harassment incidence when compared to convenience sampling and measures using questionnaires that listed behaviors believed to constitute sexual harassment. Furthermore, findings suggest differences in reported incidence based on work location, with academia averaging the lowest on direct query sexual harassment while military samples averaged the highest. By combining multiple studies, researchers hope to further expand on research pertaining to sexual harassment.
Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C. H., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., & Martin, S. L. (2009). College women’s experiences with physically forced, alcohol-or other drug-enabled, and drug-facilitated sexual assault before and since entering college. Journal of American College Health, 57, 639-648.
The Campus Sexual Assault study examined the prevalence of different types of sexual assault experienced by women and the means by which sexual assault was achieved. Data was collected from 5,466 undergraduate women from 2 public, 4- year universities. Participants reported on attempted and completed rape and sexual battery and if the assault occurred by use of physical or threatened force or incapacitation. The findings indicated: approximately 20% of undergraduate women experienced some type of completed sexual assault while in college, 11% while incapacitated, 7.8% experienced alcohol and/or other drug enabled sexual assault. Implications for practice include that campus sexual assault prevention programs should integrate information about substance use into programming.
Findings may not apply to all college women.
Lehavot, K., Walters, K. L., & Simoni, J. M. (2009). Abuse, mastery, and health among lesbian, bisexual, and two-spirit American Indians and Alaska Native women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 275-284.
This study examined the association between sexual and physical abuse and health outcomes among 152 urban two-spirit American Indian (AI) and Alaska Native (AN) women. A woman’s actual or perceived control over life circumstances (mastery) was used as a mediator of the association. The data was collected from a larger study, the HONOR Project across 7 cities: New York City, Los Angeles, San Francisco/Oakland, Tulsa/Oklahoma City, Denver, Minneapolis/St. Paul, and Seattle/Tacoma. Findings indicated that 78% of the women had experienced lifetime physical assault and 85% had experienced lifetime sexual assault. Seventy-six percent of women reported sexual contact before age 18. Physical and sexual assault, childhood trauma, and partner violence were associated with worse mental and physical health. Women who experienced sexual assault by both an acquaintance and stranger had worse mental health outcomes than women who reported assault by one type of perpetrator. Prevention and health promotion interventions for Native communities should incorporate mastery in a culturally and socially appropriate manner.
A causal relationship between abuse and health outcomes was not established.
Light, D. & Monk-Turner, E. (2008). Circumstances surrounding male sexual assault and rape. Findings from the National Violence against Women Survey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 1849 - 1858.
This study used data from 219 male respondents who disclosed sexual assault or rape victimization during the 1994-1996 National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAW). The respondents were asked questions about the circumstances of their assault including physical injury, penetration, threats, weapon use, alcohol use, help sought after the attack, and report of the attack to police. Findings indicated that 89% reported no physical injury, 67% reported no penetration, 12% reported the assault to police, 16% reported being under the influence during the assault, and 29% sought help after the assault. The authors suggested that the finding suggest that clinical samples may be overrepresentive of men who victims of sexual violence.
The study included a small sample of male victims.
Martin, S., Ray, N. Sotres-Alvarez, D., Kupper, L., Moracco, K., Dickens, P., et al. (2006). Physical and sexual assault of women with disabilities. Violence Against Women, 12, 823-837.
This study looked at data from phone surveys completed by 5,326 women in North Carolina. Prevalence of physical, emotional, or mental disabilities was estimated at 26%. Sexual assault (forced sexual activity) was experienced by 1.5% of disabled women and 0.6% of women without disabilities in the past year. Women who self-identified as disabled and those with cognitive impairments were significantly more likely to have experienced sexual assault (2.1% and 1.7% respectively). Other factors associated with having experienced sexual violence were being under 40 years old and being non-white. Physical assault was experienced during the previous year by 2.0% of disabled women and 2.3% of non-disabled women. Results suggest that sexual violence and domestic violence services should ensure that their services are accessible to and appropriate for women with physical, emotional, and mental disabilities.
Women in institutional settings (care homes, prison, etc.) were not included in this study. Because only households with telephones were surveyed, these results cannot be generalized to women who live without telephones.
Masho, S. W. & Anderson, L. (2009). Sexual assault in men: A population-based study in Virginia. Violence and Victims, 24, 98-110.
Between 2002 and 2003 a telephone survey was conducted with 705 men in Virginia to examine rates of sexual. Lifetime prevalence of sexual assault was 12.9% and 40% of the assaults occurred before victims were 12 years of age. The most common forms of sexual assault were non-forcible child molestation (6.4%) and non-forcible child rape (4.5%). Men assaulted as children were 2 times more likely to report suicidal ideation and 3 times as likely to report depression. Prevalence of sexual assault decreased with age and men with increased educational attainment were more likely to report sexual assault. The authors recommended that primary prevention efforts should be targeted at boys.
Compared to the entire male population in Virginia the study sample was older, more educated, and more likely to be married. Results may not be generalizable to all men in Virginia or other states.
McCauley, J. L., Ruggiero, K. J., Resnick, H. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2010). Incapacitated, forcible, and drug/alcohol-facilitated rape in relation to binge drinking, marijuana use, and illicit drug use: A national survey. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23, 132-140.
This study examined relationships between substance abuse and forcible, incapacitated, and drug/alcohol-facilitated rape among 1,998 women between 18 and 34 years old. This study is based on a large national household telephone survey of women in the United States. Findings indicated that 23% of women reported a lifetime experience of rape (forcible 19%, drug/alcohol-facilitated 3%, & incapacitated 5%). Women who experienced incapacitated rape were more likely to report past year binge-drinking and those who reported drug/alcohol-facilitated rape were more likely to report past year marijuana and illicit drug use. Sexual violence risk reduction programs may be more effective if binge drinking interventions were integrated.
The order of onset of substance abuse and a history of rape was not assessed; a causal relationship cannot be shown.
Messman-Moore, T. L. & Brown, A. L. (2006). Risk perception, rape, and sexual revictimization: A prospective study of college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 159-172.
In this longitudinal study, 262 women completed a series of questionnaires four times over eight months. Rates of sexual victimization and rape experienced by participants were assessed over time. At baseline, 56.8% of the women had already experienced some form of sexual victimization in their lifetime. Participants were asked to read two scenarios ending in rape, one involving a male acquaintance and the other a male stranger (scenarios are presented in the Appendix). Women indicated at what point during the scenario they would feel uncomfortable and when they would leave the situation. During the eight month follow-up period, 43.4% of participants reported some type of unwanted sexual experience, and 10% of the women were raped. Prior victimization and delayed risk response (i.e., leaving the hypothetical situation later in the scenario) were associated with increased likelihood of sexual victimization during the course of the study. The researchers recommended that prevention programs place more emphasis on risk-reduction behaviors rather than risk identification, and that acquaintance rape scenarios should be used more than stranger rape scenarios in sexual violence education programs.
Moracco, K. E., Runyan, C. W., Bowling, J. M., & Earp, J. A. (2007). Women's experiences with violence: A national study. Women's Health Issues, 17, 3-12.
During 1997, telephone interviews were conducted with 1800 US women aged 18 years and over. Women were asked about stalking behaviors, physical assault, and sexual assault that they had experienced both during their adult lives and during the previous year. Data were weighted to account for demographic variations. Consistent with other national surveys such as the National Violence Against Women Survey, about one in six women reported having been sexually assaulted, and the perpetrator was three times more likely to be someone known to them than a stranger. Racial/ethnic differences were also similar to other national findings, with Asian American and white women being less likely to experience violence than all other groups. Other risk factors for having experienced sexual violence included being less than 55 years old (young women aged 18-24 reported the most violence), living in a household that received public assistance, and being lesbian/bisexual.
The sample was restricted to women living in households with telephones. Because the study was cross-sectional, the causal relationship of risk factors to types of violence experienced cannot be explored.
Potter, S. J., & Laflamme, D. J. (2010). An assessment of state level sexual assault prevalence estimates. Maternal Child Health Journal, (online).
Survey design and sexual violence prevalence rates for 3 surveys used at the state level were compared: the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAWS) extrapolations, and replications of the NVAWS. Findings indicated that the BRFSS prevalence rates were lower than extrapolated NVAWS and the NVAWS replication rates. The NVAWS extrapolation rates were lower than the state NVAWS replication survey rates. The NVAWS used 5 items to capture higher lifetime prevalence of sexual assault, while the BRFSS used two items. One advantage of the BRFSS is that the questions are consistent across states and years, however, the level of question specificity may not accurately capture true prevalence. State leaders and policy makers should use survey data with caution because state-level estimates may not accurately show state needs. State leaders, policy makers, and reporters need to be aware that methodological differences may lead to different prevalence rates.
Data was collected for only 5 states: New Hampshire, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and Washington.
Prospero, M., & Fawson, P. (2010). Sexual coercion and mental health symptoms among heterosexual men: The pressure to say “yes”. American Journal of Men’s Health, 4, 98-103.
This study examined the prevalence of heterosexual intimate partner sexual, physical, and psychological violence (IPV) and mental health problems among 370 male students from a southeastrn university in the United States. Mental health symptoms examined included: anxiety, depression, hostility, and somatic symtoms. Findings indicated that 39% of men reported sexual IPV, 44% reported physical IPV, and 81% reported psychological IPV. Men who reported sexual IPV were more likely to experience anxiety and somatic symptoms. Men who reported high psychological IPV were more likely to report hostility. Males experienced more “insisted” sexual coercion than forced sexual coercion. Authors suggested that IPV experienced by males may threaten masculinity and lead to future violence and feelings of inadequacy. Primary prevention programs should teach men and women that it is acceptable for men to refuse sex from female intimate partners.
A causal relationship between IPV and mental health symptoms could not be determined.
Raj, A., Rose, J., Decker, M. R., Rosengard, C., Hebert, M. R., Stein, M., et al. (2008). Prevalence and patterns of sexual assault across the life span among incarcerated women. Violence Against Women, 14, 528-541.
This study examined the prevalence of assault across life span and associations with perpetrators in a sample of incarcerated women at the Rhode Island Department of Corrections in 2002 and 2003. Investigators found that more than half of the women experienced sexual assault during their life span. This sample was found to be more vulnerable to childhood sexual assault (CSA) by family members and in adulthood by strangers. Results indicated an association between CSA by family and adulthood assault by friend, stranger and partner. Prevalence of assault by partners in adolescence was less than rates reported by the general population.
Sample only included women in one correctional facility that were only English speaking.
Rothman, E. F., Exner, D., & Baughman, A. L. (2011). The prevalence of sexual assault against people who identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual in the United States: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 12, 55-66.
This article reviewed 75 quantitative studies that examined the prevalence of sexual assault among gay, lesbian, and bisexual (GLB) individuals in the United States between 1989 and 2009. A total of 139,635 GLB individuals participated in the studies. The lifetime prevalence of sexual assault ranged from 12% to 54% among gay and bisexual men and from 16% to 85% among lesbian and bisexual women. Lesbian and bisexual women were more likely to report child sexual assault, adult sexual assault, and intimate partner sexual assault than gay and bisexual men. Gay and bisexual men were more likely to report hate crime related sexual assault, ranging from 3% to 20%. Funding should be made available to develop, implement, and evaluate primary and secondary prevention programming for the GLB community. More research is needed to examine the relationship between the victim and the perpetrator in sexual violence against GLB individuals.
Direct comparisons between the prevalence of sexual assault among GLB and heterosexual populations were not presented. The prevalence of sexual assault victimization among transgendered individuals is not provided in the study.
Spitzberg, B. H. & Cupach, W. R. (2007). The state of the art of stalking: Taking stock of the emerging literature. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 12, 64-86.
This meta-analysis summarizes the results of 175 studies of stalking. In addition to looking at variations in prevalence between studies, the authors considered the definitions of stalking and described the closely-related set of behaviors termed “obsessive relational intrusion.” The authors created systematic typologies of types of stalkers, stalkers’ motivations, and types of stalking behaviors. Victims’ coping responses and the effects of stalking are also categorized. The majority of stalking victims are women. Because the majority of victims (79%) were acquainted with the stalker, and because half of all stalking was related to romantic relationships, the authors recommended looking at most stalking not only as criminal behavior or psychopathology, but as a type of “relationship terrorism” similar to other types of domestic violence.
Street, A. E., Stafford, J., Mahan, C. M., & Hendricks, A. (2008). Sexual harassment and assault experienced by reservists during military service: Prevalence and health correlates. Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development, 45, 409-420.
Data was collected from 3,946 former reservists to determine gender-specific experiences of military sexual harassment and sexual assault and to identify mental and physical health correlates of those experiences. Findings included: all females and males that experienced sexual assault also experienced sexual harassment, 60% of all discharged female reservists reported history of sexual harassment/assault assault during service, 13.1% reported being sexually assaulted during service, and 27.2% of discharged male reservists reported sexual harassment/assault and 1.6% reported sexual assault during service. Sexual harassment and assault were associated with depression, somatic systems, and medical conditions for both women and men.
Sample included reservists who served from 1980 to 2000 and results should not be generalized to current reservists.
Trach, J., Hymel, S., Waterhouse, T., & Neale, K. (2010). Bystander responses to school bullying: A cross-sectional investigation to grade and sex differences. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 25, 114-130.
This study examined sex differences in experiences of bullying, victimization, and bystander responses among 9,397 students, grades 4 to 11, from a suburban school district in Canada. Findings indicated that social bullying and victimization were reported more often than physical and cyber bullying. Boys reported participating in more physical, verbal, and cyber bullying and experienced more physical and verbal victimization than girls. Girls reported participating in more social bullying and experienced more social victimization. Younger students reported taking positive action when a witness to bullying than older students. Students in grades 4 and 5 reported intervening by telling the bully to stop, helping the victim, or talking to an adult. Older students were more likely to do nothing or utilize indirect and retaliatory strategies to get back at the bully. Bullying prevention programs should begin in elementary school and teach specific strategies that can be used to intervene in a bullying situation.
Participants were from one suburban school in Canada and results may not be generalizable to students from other school districts in Canada or in the United States.
Turchick, J. A., & Wilson, S. M. (2010). Sexual assault in the U.S. military: A review of the literature and recommendations for the future. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15, 267-277.
This article provides a comprehensive review of the current literature available on sexual assault in the military. The article reviews prevalence rates and factors that contribute to the rates of sexual assaults. Factors examined included: sociodemographic factors, substance use, prior sexual abuse, prior sexual perpetration, and military culture, structure and environment. Military laws and barriers to reporting are briefly discussed. Responses by the Department of Defense, Department of Veterans Affairs, and military branches are examined. The article concludes with suggestions for future improvements, such as greater integration and equal roles for women in the military. Future efforts should continue to focus on assessing prevalence of sexual assault victimization, especially among males, as well as, evaluating the effectiveness of current sexual assault programs and services.
The focus of the review is on female victims and male perpetrators.
Wolff, N., Blitz, C., Shi, J., Bachman, R., Siegel, J. (2006). Sexual violence inside prisons: Rates of victimization. Journal of Urban Health, 83, 835-848.
To estimate the prevalence of sexual violence in a prison system, male (n=6,964) and female inmates (n=564) in twelve prisons in a small eastern state completed a computer-assisted survey. Inmates were asked about incidents involving abusive sexual contact and non-consensual sex acts by other inmates or by prison staff within the last 6 months. Females reported inmate-on-inmate sexual violence at 212 incidents per 1000 inmates while males reported only 43 incidents per 1000 inmates. Rates of non-consensual sex (inmate on inmate) were 32 per 1000 for women and 15 per for men. Staff-on-inmate sexual victimization rates were the same for men and women (76 per 1000), with men reporting 19 per 1000 incidents of non-consensual sex vs. 17 per 1000 for women. This study had a good response rate (average 39%) from all inmates housed in general population. Because rates of sexual violence varied by the site, future studies should look at factors that can minimize risks. Inmate experiences of trauma and disease from forced sex should be addressed to prevent them from contributing to the ill health of their community when they are released.
Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Ruggiero, K. J., Danielson, C. K., Resnick, H. S., Hanson, R. F.,
Smith, K. W., et al. (2008). Prevalence and correlates of dating violence in a national sample of adolescents. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 755-762.
A nationally representative sample of 3, 614 adolescents ranging from 12-17 years old were used to examine risk and protective factors associated with dating violence, with emphasis on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive episode (MDE) due to other traumatic events and recent life stressors. Findings suggested that dating violence is associated with PTSD and MDE diagnosis. Individuals who experienced partner violence were four times as likely to be diagnosed with PTSD and MDE. Authors suggested that the findings may be useful to help implement screenings for traumatic experiences among children. Screenings may be used as tool to reduce dating violence by identifying individuals that may have a greater need for improved anger management and coping skills.
This was a cross-sectional study and the definitions of dating violence may vary.
Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Resnick, H. S., McCauley, J. L., Amstadter, A. B., Kilpatrick, D., G., & Fuggiero, K. J. (2011). Is reporting rape on the rise? A comparison of women with reported versus unreported rape experiences in the National Women’s Study-Replication. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 807-832.
This study examined the prevalence of rape reported to law enforcement in a national sample of 3,001 women ages 18-76 who were interviewed by telephone in 2006. Out of the 526 (18%) women who disclosed having a history of rape, 16% reported their most recent/only rape to law enforcement which is consistent with previous studies from the 1990s. Findings showed that there are several predictors of reporting rape to law enforcement. Women with a college degree were less likely than women in some high school education to report their rape. Reporting rape to law enforcement was more likely if the participant cited peritraumatic fear (fear during trauma), being raped by a stranger, and if the rape occurred after 1980. Several concerns about reporting rape included being blamed, and having family members or others find out about the rape which was also consistent with the National Women’s Study conducted in 1992. Fear of reprisal from the offender was reported as the most common reason (68%) for not reporting the rape to police.
Women who did not have landline phone were excluded from this study.
Yan, F.A., Howard, D.E., Beck, K. H., Shattuck, T., & Hallmark-Kerr, M. (2010). Psychosocial correlates of physical dating violence victimization among Latino early adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 808-831.
The purpose of this study was to explore the risk factors for dating violence victimization among Latino adolescents with considerations to gender differences. The study sample included 322 Latino youth between the ages of 11 and 13 living in Maryland. Participants were given surveys that used questions from the CDC’s Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) and assessed physical dating violence victimization, violence-related behaviors, substance use, emotional well-being, prosocial behaviors, and parental/familial factors. The prevalence rate for dating violence victimization among female adolescents was 14.4%. Male adolescents had a prevalence rate of 12.9% for dating violence victimization. The highest prevalence of dating violence was documented among eighth graders. In addition to determining binge drinking as a risk behavior related to dating violence victimization in girls, this study found that gun carrying, alcohol consumption, and having considered suicide were associated with dating violence victimization in boys. Strong parental/familial connections and support were considered protective factors and may lower the risk of dating violence victimization among Latino adolescents. Prevention programs that promote healthy dating relationships and awareness of dating violence for elementary school aged children were recommended.
The study sample was selected from Maryland; therefore, findings may not be generalizeable to Latino adolescents from other regions in the U.S.
Young, A., Young, A. & Fullwood, H. (2007). Adolescent online victimization. The Prevention Researcher, 14, 8-9.
In a review of three recent studies, the authors estimated national prevalence of online victimization of youth at 13% for sexual solicitation; 34% for exposure to unwanted sexual material; and 9% for any type of harassment. The majority of incidents was not distressing and was not reported to adults. Risk factors for online victimization included older age (youth 14-17 were at higher risk than younger children) and gender (girls were more likely to experience sexual solicitation or harassment than boys). In one study, 60% of youth gave out personal information in an online questionnaire or form. About 45% gave that information to someone they had met online. Possible prevention strategies include frank discussion by adults about Internet victimization so that youth are better equipped to avoid it and deal with it if it happens. The authors recommended making youth aware of the possible consequences of sharing personal information online. Adults can also prepare youth to take action if they are victimized: removing themselves from the situation; changing screen name; and reporting the incident to prevent others from being victimized.