The study sample consisted of 268 primarily low income, African-American (77%) female veterans and reservists seeking medical care at a VA clinic. Out of 104 sexual assaults described, 38% occurred while a woman was in military service, and 82% of those were committed by a military peer or supervisor. Similar numbers of victims of military and non-military assault sought medical treatment after an attack. Although military medical providers engaged in fewer secondary victimization behaviors than non-military providers, victims were more likely to have negative feelings after treatment by military medical personnel. Military victims were more likely to have reported the assault to legal personnel (59%) than non-military victims (26%). Both groups experienced similar overall levels of legal secondary victimization. All victims who encountered any secondary victimization behaviors reported more post-traumatic stress symptoms. In light of the high prevalence rates, the researchers recommended that the VA expand services such as the Women Veterans’ Comprehensive Health Centers to create environments where women can receive respectful and appropriate treatment.
These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on original papers published within the last 6 years. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona. To conduct an individual search or locate older articles use the Search Summary Database which includes over 600 articles related to sexual violence.
Military
Campbell, R. & Raja, S. (2005). The sexual assault and secondary victimization of female veterans: Help-seeking experiences with military and civilian social systems. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 97-106.
David, W., Simpson, T. & Cotton, A. (2006). Taking charge: A pilot curriculum of self-defense and personal safety training for female veterans with PTSD because of military sexual trauma. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 555-565.
A group of twelve female veterans (average age 48.3 years) in treatment for PTSD at a VA hospital participated in this 12-week, 36-hour pilot treatment program. Each three-hour group session included one hour of psychoeducation and role-play; one hour of physical self-defense training with a male and a female instructor, and one hour of debriefing. Three female psychologists were present throughout each session. Data was collected from ten women: twice before the intervention, immediately after completion, and at three and six months after. Significant changes lasting over time included: being able to better identify risky vs. safe situations; less avoidance of social situations to avoid triggering memories; less hyperarousal; less depression; and increased self-efficacy. A strong bond developed among participants which may have helped all twelve complete the program.
This study was limited by a small sample size of self-selected participants who were carefully screened for psychological and physical stability. Further studies should be done to determine if equally positive results are found in other groups.
Kimerling, R., Street, A. E., Gima, K., & Smith, M.W. (2008). Evaluation of universal screening for military-related sexual trauma. Psychiatric Services, 59, 635-640.
In 2005, 33,259 women and 540,381 men were screened for military sexual trauma which the Veterans Health Administration refers to military sexual trauma as severe or threatening forms of sexual harassment and sexual assault sustained in military service. The purpose of the study was to evaluate screening efforts and to explore if there was association with increased use of mental health services and sexual trauma screening. Women and men who had positive screens had higher rates of post screen mental health treatment. The screens increased utilization of mental health services among individuals without a history of mental health treatment.
The study does not show a causal relationship between screening and use of mental health services.
McWhorter, S. K., Stander, V. A., Merrill, L. L, Thomsen, C. J., & Milner, J. S. (2009). Reports of rape perpetration by newly enlisted male navy personnel. Violence and Victims, 24, 204-218.
Between 1996 and 1997 the frequency and characteristics of repeated attempted and completed rape among 1,146 enlisted male navy recruits was examined. Results indicated that 13% of participants had perpetrated at least once attempted or completed rape between age 14 and the end of the first year of their military service. Among the lifetime incidents reported: 71% reported perpetrating two or more times, more likely to use substances than force, and knowing their victims. The findings illustrated that rape perpetration is as big of a problem among military personnel as within a civilian population. Authors suggested prevention programs be designed to decrease attempted and completed rape committed during military service and provide both men and women with information on building personal and professional relationships.
Prevention strategies were not specific to the military environment.
Potter, S. J. & Moynihan, M. M. (2011). Bringing in the bystander in-person prevention program to a U.S. military installation: Results from a pilot study. Military Medicine, 176, 870-875.
This pilot study evaluated whether the Bringing in the Bystander (BITB) program, which was developed for college campuses, could be successfully adapted to the U.S. military. This sample comprised of 394 soldiers from the U.S. Army Europe (USAREUR) personnel with 28% (n=131) participating in the program and 72% (n=337) not participating in the program. Researchers hypothesized than soldiers who participated in BITB would be more likely to intervene in sexual assault or stalking situations for friends, acquaintances, and strangers that soldiers who did not participate in the program. Results showed that there was no significant difference bystander behaviors aimed at preventing sexual assault for friends between the soldiers who did and did not participate in the BITB program. However, soldiers participating in the BITB program reported being more likely to prevent sexual assault situations amongst acquaintances, strangers, and overall than non-participating soldiers.
The pilot study included a small sample size for the soldiers who participated in the program so results may not be a representative conclusion for all soldiers who may participate in the program in the future.
Schultz, J., Bell, K., Naugle, A., Polusny, M. (2006). Child sexual abuse and adulthood sexual assault among military veteran and civilian women. Military Medicine, 171, 723-728.
Both veteran women (N=142) and non-veteran women (N=81) from community settings completed questionnaires about their experiences of child sexual abuse, adult sexual victimization, and adult sexual assault. More than twice as many veteran women (48.9%) reported adult sexual assault than community women (21.5%). Veteran women and community women reported similar levels of child sexual abuse (48.6% and 43.2% respectively), but veteran women were much more likely to have been sexually abused by a parental figure (91.9% vs. 10%). The authors recommend screening women in the military to assist those who may have been sexually traumatized, and development of a sexual assault prevention program for all women entering the military.
Because women with a history of sexual violence may have been more likely to complete the questionnaire, rates of reported sexual violence may be higher than in a general population.
Street, A. E., Stafford, J., Mahan, C. M., & Hendricks, A. (2008). Sexual harassment and assault experienced by reservists during military service: Prevalence and health correlates. Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development, 45, 409-420.
Data was collected from 3,946 former reservists to determine gender-specific experiences of military sexual harassment and sexual assault and to identify mental and physical health correlates of those experiences. Findings included: all females and males that experienced sexual assault also experienced sexual harassment, 60% of all discharged female reservists reported history of sexual harassment/assault assault during service, 13.1% reported being sexually assaulted during service, and 27.2% of discharged male reservists reported sexual harassment/assault and 1.6% reported sexual assault during service. Sexual harassment and assault were associated with depression, somatic systems, and medical conditions for both women and men.
Sample included reservists who served from 1980 to 2000 and results should not be generalized to current reservists.
Turchick, J. A., & Wilson, S. M. (2010). Sexual assault in the U.S. military: A review of the literature and recommendations for the future. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15, 267-277.
This article provides a comprehensive review of the current literature available on sexual assault in the military. The article reviews prevalence rates and factors that contribute to the rates of sexual assaults. Factors examined included: sociodemographic factors, substance use, prior sexual abuse, prior sexual perpetration, and military culture, structure and environment. Military laws and barriers to reporting are briefly discussed. Responses by the Department of Defense, Department of Veterans Affairs, and military branches are examined. The article concludes with suggestions for future improvements, such as greater integration and equal roles for women in the military. Future efforts should continue to focus on assessing prevalence of sexual assault victimization, especially among males, as well as, evaluating the effectiveness of current sexual assault programs and services.
The focus of the review is on female victims and male perpetrators.