Students responded to five questionnaires: the Psychosocial Function of Sports Scale (to assess sport ideology), a questionnaire measuring the types and amount of sports they participated in or viewed, the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (to measure attitudes towards women in society), the Coercive Sexuality Scale (to assess college males’ level of involvement in sexually coercive or aggressive behaviors), and a brief demographic questionnaire (which asked about age, class standing, and fraternity membership). Analysis of these data indicated that fraternity membership, conservative attitudes towards women, and viewing contact sports were significant predictors of sexual aggression against women. Higher scores predicted higher levels of aggression. Oddly, low scores on men’s contact sports participation also predicted higher levels of sexual aggression towards women.
These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on original papers published within the last 6 years. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona. To conduct an individual search or locate older articles use the Search Summary Database which includes over 600 articles related to sexual violence.
Male-Female Relations
Brown, T. J., Sumner, K. E., & Nocera, R. (2002). Understanding sexual aggression against women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 937-952.
Connop, V., & Petrak, J. (2004). The impact of sexual assault on heterosexual couples. Sexual & Relationship Therapy, 19, 29-38.
The purpose of this study was to examine how male partners react to their partner’s sexual assault and what happens to the couples’ interactions. Participants were recruited through a sexual assault clinic and through press advertisements. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 6 males whose previous or current partners had been sexually assaulted and with 3 females who had been sexually assaulted and had disclosed their assault to their partners. Interviews revealed that 8 of the 9 participants had a partner who had experienced acquaintance rape – or, in the case of the female participants, had been the victim of acquaintance rape. In analyzing the interviews, four themes were identified: (a) the male partner’s role in providing support, (b) communication, (c) anger and blame, and (d) the impact of the assault on the sexual relationship. Many of the male participants indicated that they felt they should put their partner’s needs first and felt exhausted by their role in supporting their partner. Men also revealed a common assumption relating to socio-cultural scripts concerning heterosexual relationships; namely, the idea that they ought to protect their women. Relationship disturbances and communication problems were also reported to have increased in the aftermath of the assault. While at times the men enunciated rape myths, they could not be categorized either as viewing the rape as a sexual act or as a violent act (as the prior research study had indicated). A final issue noted by participants was how the sexual assault increased their difficulty in performing and enjoying sexual activity. Suggested implications of the findings for service provision include the benefit of couple-based counseling and counseling to support male partners’ support needs and psychosexual issues.
Farris, C., Treat, T. A., Viken, R. J., & McFall, R. M. (2008). Sexual coercion and the misperception of sexual intent. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 48-66.
This review article focused on gender differences on the perception of female sexual behaviors and intents, the association between sexual coercion and misperception, situational factors that may increase misperception, and clinical implications. The study concentrated on sexually coercive behavior, between partners, that is not premeditated but purposeful and on men’s ability to distinguish sexual interest from platonic interest. Men were more likely to perceive more sexual intent in a woman’s behavior but this gender difference may be attributed to a small sub-group of males at high risk for sexual coercion or men more supportive of sex-role stereotypes. Some situational factors were correlated with an increase in men’s estimates of women’s sexual intent.
It is difficult to assess perception and interpret observed differences in perception. Most literature assumes that men are prone to perceive sexual intent where it does not exist and that women’s perception of sexual intent of other women is the standard to measure interest.
Hines, D. (2007). Predictors of sexual coercion against women and men: A multilevel, multinational study of university students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 403-422.
This study had several goals: to investigate rates of forced and verbal sexual coercion and sexual revictimization around the world, association between sexual coercion and adversarial sexual beliefs, and association between childhood sexual abuse and current victimization of sexual aggression in both men and women. Information was gathered from the International Dating Violence Study where questionnaires were completed by students in a classroom setting at various universities around the world. The findings suggest that adversarial beliefs about romantic relationships were associated with sexual coercion for both genders. The sites with high rates of hostile beliefs about the opposite sex observed a higher number of reports of verbal and forced sexual coercion victimization.
This was a correlation study based on a sample of college/university women and men.
Holcomb, D. R., Savage, M. P., & Seehafer, R. W. (2002). A mixed-gender date rape prevention intervention targeting freshmen college athletes. College Student Journal, 36, 165-179.
Studies have shown that a high percentage of college men admit to engaging in sexually coercive behavior. Researchers have suggested a relationship between rape tolerant attitudes and behavior and sexual assault perpetration. In this study, 141 freshmen college athletes at a large Mideastern university were separated into two groups in order to compare the effectiveness of a mixed-gender date rape prevention program. The Date Rape Attitudes Survey (DRAS) (Holcomb, Sondag, & Holcomb, 1993) was used to compare the treatment group’s posttest responses to the posttest responses of the control group (which received no mixed-gender date rape prevention training). Analysis of the results showed that attitudes more tolerant of date rape were more prevalent in the control group than in the treatment group. Also, male athletes were more likely to condone date rape than female athletes were. The impact of the mixed-gender date rape prevention program was not significantly different across gender.
Katz, J., & Myhr, L. (2008). Perceived conflict patterns and relationship quality associated with verbal sexual coercion by male dating partners. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 798-814.
This study explored verbal sexual coercion against women by their male sexual partners. Once hundred ninety-three undergraduate women in consensually sexual dating relationships were asked about male partner verbal sexual coercion, conflict behaviors, and relationship quality. The findings showed an association between women feeling pressured to have sex and their perceptions of psychological abuse and destructive conflict behavior patterns. In general, women reported less relationship satisfaction and less sexual satisfaction and desire.
The sample consisted of primarily Caucasian college-aged women. Results were based on self-reports and may be subject to response bias.
Kernsmith, P. D. & Kernsmith R. M. (2009). Gender differences in responses to sexual coercion. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 19, 902-914.
This study examined how prior abuse or victimization impacted reactions to sexual coercion with 732 undergraduate males and females from 2 Midwestern universities. Females reported higher coercion victimization on both the lies and obligation scales than males. Common emotional responses by females included: anger, being turned off, irritated, and disappointed. Males were more likely to report positive emotional responses to coercion. The most common emotional response reported by males were mixed feelings and ambivalence. Those who experienced more sexual coercion, intimate partner violence, and prior sexual abuse were more likely to report negative responses. The findings suggest that prevention programs should include skills building about healthy communication and boundaries and programs should be gender-neutral.
Definitions of unwanted sex versus nonconsensual sex may vary by individual.
Noonan, R. K. & Charles, D. (2009). Developing teen dating violence prevention strategies. Formative research with middle school youth. Violence Against Women, 15, 1087-1105.
Twelve focus groups were conducted with 6th, 7th, and 8th, graders in Atlanta, Georgia. Students were asked about behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes about dating relationships. Topics included: characteristics of middle school dating relationships, healthy and unhealthy relationships, perceived relationship norms, emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, bystander interventions, and trusted sources for information about dating. Dominant themes emerged: abuse increased with age, dating relationships mimic traditional gender roles and are supported by peer relationships, slapping or grabbing were most commonly reported forms of physical violence, and grabbing and touching were most commonly reported forms of sexual abuse. African American youth had greater exposure to peer violence. Males reported that they may be hesitant to intervene in a violent situation because the bystander may be hurt as well as the victim. Implications for practice suggest skill building for bystanders to examine options of intervening safely. Prevention activities and messages should be tailored to subsets of youth by age, race/ethnicity, gender, and other social differences.
Findings may not be generalizable to other regions of the United States.
Prospero, M. (2006). The role of perceptions in dating violence among young adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 470-484.
A group of predominately Hispanic seventh and eighth grade students (n=89) were read four dating scenarios and asked questions about the protagonist’s perception of what the behavior meant and how the protagonist should respond to the behavior. They chose from a set of closed responses which the researchers coded as aggressive or non-aggressive. Although most students thought that the protagonist would not perceive the behavior aggressively (63-76%), most thought that the protagonist should respond aggressively (64-82%). More males than females thought that the response should be aggressive. To develop the dating scenarios and responses, the authors used focus groups made up of youth from the same population as those to whom the survey was given. They recommend use of this method to ensure that interventions target diverse groups appropriately.
Participants may have responded with what they thought their peers would believe to be appropriate behaviors, and may not have actually acted that way in a real-life situation. The sample used was taken from one school, and the results may not be generalizable.
Prospero, M., & Fawson, P. (2010). Sexual coercion and mental health symptoms among heterosexual men: The pressure to say “yes”. American Journal of Men’s Health, 4, 98-103.
This study examined the prevalence of heterosexual intimate partner sexual, physical, and psychological violence (IPV) and mental health problems among 370 male students from a southeastrn university in the United States. Mental health symptoms examined included: anxiety, depression, hostility, and somatic symtoms. Findings indicated that 39% of men reported sexual IPV, 44% reported physical IPV, and 81% reported psychological IPV. Men who reported sexual IPV were more likely to experience anxiety and somatic symptoms. Men who reported high psychological IPV were more likely to report hostility. Males experienced more “insisted” sexual coercion than forced sexual coercion. Authors suggested that IPV experienced by males may threaten masculinity and lead to future violence and feelings of inadequacy. Primary prevention programs should teach men and women that it is acceptable for men to refuse sex from female intimate partners.
A causal relationship between IPV and mental health symptoms could not be determined.
Reed, E., Silverman, J. G., Raj, A., Decker, M. R., & Miller, E. (2011). Male perpetration of teen dating violence: Associations with neighborhood violence involvement, gender attitudes, and perceived peer and neighborhood norms. Journal of Urban Health, 88, 226-239.
This study examined whether neighborhood violence, beliefs in traditional gender norms, and perceived peer and neighborhood norms related to violence had an effect on the likelihood of male perpetration of teen dating violence (TDV). Adolescent males ages 14-20 were recruited from urban health care clinics in Boston to participate in the study. The sample included 275 adolescent males who reported having a female dating partner and a subsample of 134 from the 275 who reported having sex with a female partner. Results indicated that boys who were participated in neighborhood violence were more likely to report TDV perpetration. Boys who believed in traditional gender norms, perceived peers as perpetrating TDV, and those who perceived violent activity in their neighborhood were more likely to perpetrate TDV themselves. For all variables (i.e. participation in neighborhood violence, gender norm beliefs and perceived peer and neighborhood norms), TDV perpetration was more likely in boys who reported having sex with a female partner.
Recruitment for this study was only in clinics that served lower income urban populations and should not be generalized to the other populations.
Santana, M., Raj, A., Decker, M., La Marche, A., & Silverman, J. (2006). Masculine gender roles associated with increased sexual risk and intimate partner violence perpetration among young adult men. Journal of Urban Health, 83, 575-585.
A group of 283 men, aged 18-35, were recruited at a community health center in Boston. The men were mostly Hispanic (74.9%) and Black (21.9%), and 55% were not born in the continental US. In the previous year, 40% reported committing one or more types of intimate partner violence (IPV): sexual violence (28.3%); physical violence (27.6%); and violence causing injury and/or need for medical services (13.8%). Men who had traditional male gender role beliefs were more likely to have committed intimate partner violence (IPV) within the past year and to have unprotected vaginal sex with a primary partner than men with less traditional beliefs. However, traditional beliefs were not associated with having multiple female partners, forcing unprotected sex, or engaging in unprotected anal sex. Levels of violence were the same regardless of race/ethnicity, country of origin, or acculturation. Only a low level of education (not having a high school diploma or GED) was associated with having traditional beliefs and with committing higher rates of IPV. The results do not imply a cause-and-effect relationship between IPV and traditional beliefs. However, interventions to reduce IPV and sexual risk among young men may be more successful if they promote less traditional gender role beliefs.
Schad, M. M., Szwedo, D. E., Antonishak, J., Hare, A., & Allen, J. P. (2007). The broader context of relational aggression in adolescent romantic relationships: Predictions from peer pressure and links to psychosocial functioning. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 346-358.
Relational aggression can be defined as an attempt to inflict harm on another person through manipulation or by damaging other social relationships by indirect or covert means (e.g., gossiping, lies, betrayal, isolation). It can occur in peer relationships as well as intimate relationships. This study looked at the association between experiencing relational aggression in best friend relationships and peer groups during adolescence and perpetrating or being a victim of relational aggression in later romantic relationships. Observational and written data was collected from a group of 15-year-olds (n=97) and their best friends; in the second wave of data collection three years later, target youth and their romantic partners completed written questionnaires. Youth were more likely to exhibit relational aggression in future romantic relationships if their best friends and peer groups used pressuring behaviors. Those who had experienced peer pressure from their social groups were also more likely to report feeling victimized by relational aggression in later romantic relationships. Higher levels of alcohol use and depression were reported among youth in romantic relationships characterized by relational aggression.
The study used a small sample, and some of the measurements need to be replicated and validated. The links between peer pressure, relational violence, alcohol use, and depression should be further investigated.
Swahn, M.H., Simon, T.R., Arias, I., & Bossarte, R.M. (2008). Measuring sex differences in violence victimization and perpetration within date and same-sex peer relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 1120 - 1138.
In 2004, 4,131 students from a high-risk school district were assessed on dating and peer physical violence and psychological aggression. The objective of the study was to determine if boys’ and girls’ experiences of interpersonal violence differ by gender and grade level. Students completed an anonymous, self-administered questionnaire that asked about dating and same-sex peer violence victimization that occurred in the past 12 months. Results showed that several sex differences do occur in victimization and perpetration of physical violence in both relationship contexts. Females reported a higher incidence of reported physical violence perpetration within a dating context and boys reported more physical violence in same-sex peer relationships. Boys were more likely to inflict injury in both types of relationships. Experiences of interpersonal violence for boys and girls varied by age.
The findings of the study were based on students in a high-risk community; indicators of risk include poverty, unemployment, single parent households, and serious crimes.