This methodology has been limited to younger populations and has not been used in assessing elder victimization. The purposes of this study were to assess the effectiveness of the methodology with elderly individuals; measure lifespan physical, sexual, and emotional violence victimization by familial and non-familial perpetrators; assess victim psychopathology; and compare the impact of an in-person interview format with that of a telephone interview format. Participants (N = 106) were 55 to 85 years of age. The sample consisted of both police-referred victims (n = 47) of various crimes, as well as randomly selected individuals from telephone directories (n = 59). Participants were randomly selected to be interviewed in-person or by telephone. Each participant was administered a modified version of the National Women’s Study survey. The survey assessed interpersonal violence, psychopathology, and categorical independent variables (sample source and interview methodology type). Results showed that among non-police referred participants, the survey methodology proved sensitive in identifying instances of interpersonal violence. Among all participants, results indicated that interview format did not influence rates of detection for recent and distant victimization and psychopathology. The only differences noted by interview format were that telephone interviews were performed more quickly and interview safety was ranked higher than within in-person interviews. Furthermore, informal queries of participants revealed that the telephone format was preferable for a number of reasons, such as comfort level in disclosure and interviewer and victim safety. In concluding, the authors noted possible biases in the study, among which included the small sample size due to the nature of the project (i.e., a pilot feasibility demonstration project).
These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on original papers published within the last 6 years. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona. To conduct an individual search or locate older articles use the Search Summary Database which includes over 600 articles related to sexual violence.
Evaluation
Acierno, R., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., & Stark-Riemer, W. (2003). Assessing elder victimization: Demonstration of a methodology. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 38, 644-653.
Anderson, L. A., & Whiston, S. C. (2005). Sexual assault education programs: A meta-analytic examination of their effectiveness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 374-388.
The study was unique because it examined a wide variety of outcomes and explored the impact of several program factors on program effectiveness. Meta-analyses were conducted with 69 studies and 102 treatment interventions. The results showed that sexual assault programs influenced the most positive change in rape knowledge. The programs had a small, but positive influence on rape attitudes. They had a smaller impact on behavioral intentions, rape-related attitudes, and incidence of sexual assault and no impact on rape empathy and rape awareness behaviors. Several factors were associated with program effectiveness including length of the intervention, type of presenter, program content, type of audience, and gender of audience. Implications for practice and research are presented.
Ball, B., Kerig, P. K., & Rosenbluth, B. (2009). “Like a family but better because you can actually trust each other”: The expect respect dating violence prevention program for at-risk youth. Health Promotion Practice, 10, 45S-58S.
This article examined the support group component of the Expect Respect Dating Violence Prevention Program. In 2004-2005, interviews were conducted with 10 support groups in public middle school, high school, and juvenile detention settings. Interviews consisted of questions regarding aspects of the program the participants considered the most meaningful and changes in personal relationships, knowledge and attitudes, skills, and self-awareness. Most findings were consistent across groups regardless of gender, age, facilitator, or setting. Participants reported that group norms including confidentiality, respect, and emotional honesty made it easier to share experiences and emotions within a group setting. Positive relationships with group members, rather than the curriculum itself, was reported to be the most important and memorable part of the program for participants. In public schools settings, boys reported improved communication and recognition of their own abusive behaviors; girls reported an increased assertiveness and expectation to be treated well. Boys in juvenile detention reported the most change in attitudes and norms.
Qualitative methodology was used and lacks generalizability to all program participants.
Banyard, V. L., Eckstein, R. P., & Moynihan, M. M. (2009). Sexual violence prevention. The role of stages of change. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, (in press).
This article reviews the transtheoretical model of readiness for change and examined how it was applied to a primary prevention program, Bringing in the Bystander. The study examined how to operationalize and create measures to quantify readiness for change in the field of sexual violence prevention and evaluation. Findings indicated that individuals in the precontemplative stage experienced fewer program effects. Also, findings suggested that measures used to quantify readiness for change demonstrated reliability, validity, as well as internal consistency and stability over time.
Sample was small and lacked ethnic diversity. Outcome measures were mostly attitudinal.
Bradley, A. R., Yeater, E. A., & O’Donohue, W. (2009). An evaluation of a mixed-gender sexual assault prevention program. Journal of Primary Prevention, 30, 697-715.
The purpose of the study was to examine the short-term effectiveness and likeability of a mixed-gender sexual assault prevention program for college students at a mid-sized West Coast university. Students who received the intervention (177) were compared to those who did not (132) prior to the intervention and 2 weeks later. Results indicated that men who received the intervention reported increased empathy, distress, sadness and adherence to rape myths. However, 8% of men reported feeling aroused following the prevention program. The program did not change women’s knowledge of assault, participation in risky dating behaviors, or sexual communication strategies. There was no relationship found between whether women thought they already knew the material and scores on the Sexual Communication Survey and Dating Behavior Survey. Authors suggested that prevention programs should not only be information based but should also include role playing and exercises with examples of what to do when faced with a high-risk dating situation.
The follow-up period was short and the program focused on male-to-female sexual assault only.
Breitenbecher, K. H. (2008). The convergent validities of two measure of dating behaviors related to risk for sexual victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 1095-1107.
Responses from 370 women were taken to assess the convergent validities of the Dating Self-Protection Against Rape Scale (DSPARS) and the Dating Behavior Survey (DBS). Responses assessed self-protective dating behaviors, risk-related dating behaviors, risk perception in a sexual assault scenario, and history of sexual victimization. Findings of the study indicated that lower scores on DSPARS were correlated with a greater delay in perception of risk, more frequent involvement in risk-related behaviors, and increased history of more frequent sexual assaults. Higher DBS scores were associated greater delay in perception of risk and histories of more frequent victimization. The findings support convergent validities of DSPARS and DBS. A copy of the DBS instrument is included in the article.
Retrospective study that only included college women.
Casey, E. A., & Lindhorst, T. P. (2009). Toward a multi-level, ecological approach to the primary prevention of sexual violence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 10, 91-114.
This review article provides a summary of literature on the etiology of sexual assault perpetration, identifies main components of multi-level prevention programs from a variety of fields and how the components may be applied to sexual violence. The article offers 2 examples (i.e., social norms campaigns and bystander and men’s organizing approaches) of sexual violence prevention methods that operate on the peer and community levels to show how multi-level approaches to sexual violence prevention may be applied. The six components of multi-level prevention included: comprehensiveness, community engagement, contextualized programming, a focus on structural contributors to the problem, theory-based content, and emphasis on positive development. Expanding the reach and effectiveness of primary sexual violence prevention strategies requires engaging diverse networks and communities. Rigorous evaluation of the impact of prevention programs is necessary.
Articles that did not evaluate a specific prevention program and did not include multi-level prevention data were excluded from the review.
Clinton-Sherrod, A. M., Morgan-Lopez, A. A., Gibbs, D., Hawkins, S. R., Hart, L., Ball, B., et al. (2009). Factors contributing to the effectiveness of four school-based sexual violence interventions. Health Promotion Practice, 10, 19S-28S.
This study examined factors that are associated with changes in attitudes, knowledge, and intended behaviors related to sexual violence from 4 school-based interventions. Findings of the study indicated that mixed gender groups showed greater increase in recognition of sexual harassment and personal boundaries (SHPB) compared to single gender groups, and boys in mixed gender groups had higher increase on SHPB than girls. Higher scores for SHPB and understanding of positive dating relationship norms (PDRN) were seen in a classroom setting than a group setting. Gender composition and delivery format should be considered when assessing program effectiveness.
Diverse programs were examined and control groups were not used so the change experienced by participants may have not been related to programming.
Gibbs, D. A., Hawkins, S. R., Clinton-Sherrod, A. M., & Noonan, R. K. (2009). Empowering programs with evaluation technical assistance: Outcomes and lessons learned. Health Promotion Practice, 10, 38S-44S.
This article describes outcomes reported by participants and technical assistance providers of the Evaluation Assistance for Sexual Violence Programs project in 2007. Lessons learned by the technical assistance providers included the importance of: investment in collaborative relationships, maximizing program staff participation, program specific content and form of technical assistance to program preferences, and structured learning with program specific technical assistance. Participating programs identified the following outcomes: increased evaluation capacity in terms of skills, organizational resources, instrument design, and interpretation of data and program improvement that included existing interventions, development of new interventions, increased efficacy of advocating efforts, which all may result in expansion of funding. Recommendations for empowerment evaluations: invest in relationship building, maximize program staff participation, tailor content and form of technical assistance to program preferences, and combine structured and program specific technical assistance.
Data was gathered from a small sample of programs.
Gidycz, C., Rich, C., Orchowski, L., King, C., & Miller, A. (2006). The evaluation of a sexual assault self-defense and risk-reduction program for college women: A prospective study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 173-186.
Researchers examined changes in protective behaviors, sexual communication, and self-efficacy among college women participating in a sexual assault avoidance program (n=234) compared with a control group (n=266). The seven-hour skills-building program included lecture, video, group discussion, role play, and physical self-defense techniques. Three months later, a 1-½ hour “booster” session was given. Only self-protective behaviors increased over time more among program participants compared with the control group. About the same number of women in both groups reported experiencing moderate or severe victimization during the follow-up period. Among those who were victimized, program participants were more likely to blame the perpetrator. Researchers found that the only factor associated with being victimized during the follow-up period was a history of adolescent victimization.
Limits of the study include the small sample size. Program participants may have identified a broader range of experiences as sexual victimization than non-participants.
Glass, N., Perrin, N., Hanson, G., Bloom, T., Gardner, E., & Campbell, J. C. (2008). Risk for reassault in abusive female same-sex relationships. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 1021-1027.
The purpose of this study was to validate the accuracy of a revised version of the Danger Assessment (DA) instrument in assessing risk for re-assault by an abusive female partner among LBT women. In Phase 1 risk factors from the original DA were reviewed and input was received from victims and perpetrators about factors that were relevant to abusive female same-sex relationships. In Phase 2 the original DA and new risk factor items were evaluated by interviewing a sample of women. The new assessment tool identified several predictors of re-assault: an increase in physical violence, constant jealousy or possessiveness, cohabitation, threats or use of gun by abuser, illegal drug use or abuse of prescription medication by abuser, stalking, failure of individuals to take victim seriously when seeking help, fear of reinforcing negative stereotypes, and secrecy of abuse.
Small sample size limits ability to generalize findings.
Hawkins, S. R., Clinton-Sherrod, A. M., Irvin, N., Hart, L., & Russell, S. J. (2009). Logic models as a tool for sexual violence prevention program development. Health Promotion Practice, 10, 29S-37S.
This article presents two case studies that describe how positive changes can be made in sexual violence prevention programs by developing logic models that accurately describe desired outcomes. One case study described how through the process of developing a logic model there was increased organizational awareness of the importance of understanding the environmental context for program success. The second case study showed how a logic model revealed gaps in organizational programming and possible solutions. Benefits to program development, improvement, and replication were also discussed.
The findings include only the outcomes from two programs.
Jaycox, L. H., McCaffrey, D. F., Ocampo, B. W., Shelley, G. A., Blake, S. M., Peterson, D. J., et al. (2006). Challenges in the evaluation and implementation of school-based prevention and intervention programs on sensitive topics. American Journal of Evaluation, 27, 320-336.
This article described lessons learned from 3 school-based intimate partner violence prevention and intervention projects that focused on ethnic minorities. The 3 projects included: The John Hopkins University (JHU) Respect Me Project, The Break the Cycle Evaluation Project, and Arizona’s Promoting Healthy Relationships Project. Issues described included: challenges related to research design, recruitment of schools and participants, evaluation implementation challenges, the implementation-evaluation cycle, and dissemination of programs and study findings. Some strategies for success identified by the programs included: build familiarity with school environment and culture, gain cooperation from school staff members, maintain contact with staff throughout study, limit the burden on school staff members, plan time for informed consent process, prepare culturally and linguistically appropriate materials, and allow for flexibility.
School based programs were targeted mostly at African American, Latino, and American Indian adolescents.
Kimerling, R., Street, A. E., Gima, K., & Smith, M.W. (2008). Evaluation of universal screening for military-related sexual trauma. Psychiatric Services, 59, 635-640.
In 2005, 33,259 women and 540,381 men were screened for military sexual trauma which the Veterans Health Administration refers to military sexual trauma as severe or threatening forms of sexual harassment and sexual assault sustained in military service. The purpose of the study was to evaluate screening efforts and to explore if there was association with increased use of mental health services and sexual trauma screening. Women and men who had positive screens had higher rates of post screen mental health treatment. The screens increased utilization of mental health services among individuals without a history of mental health treatment.
The study does not show a causal relationship between screening and use of mental health services.
Milhausen, R., McBride, K. & Jun, M. (2006). Evaluating a peer-led, theatrical sexual assault prevention program: How do we measure success? College Student Journal, 40, 316-328.
Researchers evaluated the success of a peer-led sexual assault prevention intervention. The program consists of a skit about a date that ended in a sexual encounter. The skit is followed by group discussion and education about sexual assault on campus.
Thirty-seven men and 37 women completed a pre- and post-test. Males were more likely than females to endorse rape-supportive myths both before and after. After the presentation, fewer males and females agreed with two measures of rape-myth acceptance, but both had a slight decrease in accepting that “No means stop.” This might be explained by ambiguity in the skit, and the researchers recommend making the point more clearly and strongly. Researchers also looked for differences in results between two instruments: the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (RMAS) and the Sexual Beliefs Scale (SBS). Because no difference was found pre- and post-test on the RMAS, but the SBS measured differences in 3 of 5 subscales, researchers suggest that the SBS is a more useful tool.
Limits of the study include a small and non-random sample. It is not known if attitude changes lasted over time.
Murray, C. E., & Mobley, K. A. (2009). Empirical research about same-sex intimate partner violence: A methodological review. Journal of Homosexuality, 56, 361-386.
This article is a review of empirical research on same-sex intimate partner violence. Selection criteria were established for published articles in 8 scholarly databases. The studies reviewed and descriptions of how each met or failed to meet selection criteria are included within the article. Some methodological strengths included: appropriate statistical analyses, clarity in the type of abuse measured, appropriate conclusions, and good detail about methodologies to facilitate replication. Weaknesses of methodologies included: failure to use representative sampling procedures, omission of strategies to control for social desirability, and lack of exclusion criteria. The authors make several recommendations for future research.
Studies in this review included those published between 1995 and 2006 and focused on adult (18 and over) populations.
Potter, S. J. & Moynihan, M. M. (2011). Bringing in the bystander in-person prevention program to a U.S. military installation: Results from a pilot study. Military Medicine, 176, 870-875.
This pilot study evaluated whether the Bringing in the Bystander (BITB) program, which was developed for college campuses, could be successfully adapted to the U.S. military. This sample comprised of 394 soldiers from the U.S. Army Europe (USAREUR) personnel with 28% (n=131) participating in the program and 72% (n=337) not participating in the program. Researchers hypothesized than soldiers who participated in BITB would be more likely to intervene in sexual assault or stalking situations for friends, acquaintances, and strangers that soldiers who did not participate in the program. Results showed that there was no significant difference bystander behaviors aimed at preventing sexual assault for friends between the soldiers who did and did not participate in the BITB program. However, soldiers participating in the BITB program reported being more likely to prevent sexual assault situations amongst acquaintances, strangers, and overall than non-participating soldiers.
The pilot study included a small sample size for the soldiers who participated in the program so results may not be a representative conclusion for all soldiers who may participate in the program in the future.
Potter, S. J., Moynihan, M. M., Stapleton, J. G., & Banyard, V. L. (2009). Empowering bystanders to prevent campus violence against women. A preliminary evaluation of a poster campaign. Violence Against Women, 15, 106-212.
This exploratory study developed a poster campaign on sexual and intimate partner violence and evaluated its impact on a campus community. Students at a northeastern university were exposed to posters and flyers that modeled prosocial behaviors on a college campus. After one month, 372 students completed an on-line survey that included questions about bystander behavior, views of violence against women on campus, and stages of change. Results indicated that those who saw the poster/flyers reported greater awareness (contemplation) and willingness (action) to reduce sexual violence. However, students that participated in prior prevention programs had higher precomtemplation and action scores than those who reported seeing the posters/flyers.
Previous participation in sexual violence prevention programs had a significant effect on the dependent variable measures.
Sochting, I., Fairbrother, N., & Koch, W. J. (2004). Sexual assault of women: Prevention efforts and risk factors. Violence Against Women, 10, 73-93.
A review of the body of literature on risk factors for sexual assault is also presented. Strategies for improving rape prevention programs are highlighted and include identifying targets for behavioral change based on risk factors and training women in rape resistance strategies. Results suggested that attitude change was a less effective prevention approach.
Tharp, A. T., DeGue, S., Lang, K., Valle, L. A., Massetti, G., Holt, M., & Matjasko, J. (2011). Commentary on Foubert, Godin, & Tatum (2010): The evolution of sexual violence prevention and the urgency for effectiveness.
This article discusses the application of the standards of evidence and the principles of prevention to the evaluation of sexual violence prevention programs. The Men’s Program is used to highlight key points of the discussion because it is representative of many sexual violence prevention programs put into practice. The evolution of the sexual violence prevention field may be limited due to the following: programs do not evolve along the evidence continuum, evaluations use inadequate outcome measurements, and exposure to the intervention is insufficient. In order to establish strong evidence of effectiveness: 1) when initial evaluation results are promising and support more rigorous evaluation the same qualitative or pre-post test designs should not be employed; 2) programs should move away from evaluating attitudinal outcomes to evaluating behavioral impact; and 3) programs should be multi-session and provide dosage that is proportionate with risk of the participant and complexity of the behavior trying to be prevented. In order to develop effective sexual violence prevention programs, the scientific standards of evidence and what is known to work in other areas of prevention must be applied.
There may be other factors that limit the evidence of effectiveness of programs outside of those discussed in the article.
Townsend, S. M., & Campbell, R. (2008). Identifying common practices in community-based rape prevention programs. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 36, 121-135.
Ten community-based rape prevention programs from a single mid-western state participated in an exploratory study that had two goals: identify practices of community-based prevention programs and to examine the level of homogeneity of those programs. Findings of the study indicated that most programs are of short duration, targeted at mixed-gender groups, and in 9th grade classroom settings. The most common issues discussed included: basic facts, risk reduction, what to do after assault, healthy relationships, and sexual harassment. There was little difference between short and extended programs besides duration of program. The authors provided four recommendations for alternatives to current practices of community-based rape prevention programs.
All programs were currently or previously funded by federal Rape Prevention Education Block Grant and previously were involved in empowerment evaluation project.
Weist, M. D., Bryant, Y. U., Dantzler, J., Martin, S., D’Amico, M., Griffith, B., & Gallun, B. (2009). Evaluation of a statewide initiative in the United States to prevent/reduce sexual harassment in schools. Health Education, 109, 112-124.
This paper sought to identify best practices in school-based sexual violence prevention programs by evaluating the Sexual Harassment/Assault Prevention Project (SHAPP). Evaluation of this program consisted of 3 phases: review of curricula used by participating communities, survey of school personnel on best practices and challenges, and a comparison between a SHAPP middle school and comparable middle school not involved in the prevention initiative. Findings suggested that the school who participated in the SHAPP program reported a more positive school climate, increased sense of safety, and decreased incidents of sexual harassment/assault and bullying.
Program evaluation was limited to two schools. There were several demographic differences between the school that received the intervention (SHAPP) and the school that did not.
Yeater, E., & Viken, R. (2010). Factors affecting women’s response choices to dating and social situations. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. (Online)
The sample included 170 undergraduate women and 44 different vignettes that illustrated problems a college woman might encounter while on a date or in a social situation (e.g., party, school event, etc.) with a man. Each vignette had six different response options that ranged from low response refusal (i.e., acquiescence) to high response refusal (i.e., aggression). The study participants were asked to choose the response option that best characterized their reaction to each situation presented in the vignettes. The findings suggested that women who reported more severe histories of sexual victimization and higher disinhibition were likely to select lower response refusals. Women with greater number of sexual partners and greater alcohol use did not choose lower response refusals as hypothesized by researchers. Authors recommended that prevention programming should focus on teaching women how to refuse men’s unwanted sexual advances, especially for those women that have a history of sexual victimization or a high disinhibition personality trait.
The study sample was small and selected from a psychology subject pool.
Zweig, J., & Burt, M.R. (2007). Predicting women’s perceptions of domestic violence and sexual assault agency helpfulness: What matters to program clients? Violence Against Women, 13, 1149-1178.
Interviews with 1,509 women were conducted to asses if community agency interaction, staff behavior, and combination of services predict helpfulness of domestic violence and sexual assault agencies. Women reported that private non-profit victim service agencies were most helpful when there was positive staff behavior and when they felt a sense of control when working with staff. Increased helpfulness was reported when victim services were perceived to have interacted with the legal system and other community agencies.
Women were only interviewed once and so results do not examine the long-term impact on women’s health and safety.