This methodology has been limited to younger populations and has not been used in assessing elder victimization. The purposes of this study were to assess the effectiveness of the methodology with elderly individuals; measure lifespan physical, sexual, and emotional violence victimization by familial and non-familial perpetrators; assess victim psychopathology; and compare the impact of an in-person interview format with that of a telephone interview format. Participants (N = 106) were 55 to 85 years of age. The sample consisted of both police-referred victims (n = 47) of various crimes, as well as randomly selected individuals from telephone directories (n = 59). Participants were randomly selected to be interviewed in-person or by telephone. Each participant was administered a modified version of the National Women’s Study survey. The survey assessed interpersonal violence, psychopathology, and categorical independent variables (sample source and interview methodology type). Results showed that among non-police referred participants, the survey methodology proved sensitive in identifying instances of interpersonal violence. Among all participants, results indicated that interview format did not influence rates of detection for recent and distant victimization and psychopathology. The only differences noted by interview format were that telephone interviews were performed more quickly and interview safety was ranked higher than within in-person interviews. Furthermore, informal queries of participants revealed that the telephone format was preferable for a number of reasons, such as comfort level in disclosure and interviewer and victim safety. In concluding, the authors noted possible biases in the study, among which included the small sample size due to the nature of the project (i.e., a pilot feasibility demonstration project).
These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on original papers published within the last 6 years. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona. To conduct an individual search or locate older articles use the Search Summary Database which includes over 600 articles related to sexual violence.
Disclosure
Acierno, R., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., & Stark-Riemer, W. (2003). Assessing elder victimization: Demonstration of a methodology. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 38, 644-653.
Campbell, R. & Raja, S. (2005). The sexual assault and secondary victimization of female veterans: Help-seeking experiences with military and civilian social systems. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 97-106.
The study sample consisted of 268 primarily low income, African-American (77%) female veterans and reservists seeking medical care at a VA clinic. Out of 104 sexual assaults described, 38% occurred while a woman was in military service, and 82% of those were committed by a military peer or supervisor. Similar numbers of victims of military and non-military assault sought medical treatment after an attack. Although military medical providers engaged in fewer secondary victimization behaviors than non-military providers, victims were more likely to have negative feelings after treatment by military medical personnel. Military victims were more likely to have reported the assault to legal personnel (59%) than non-military victims (26%). Both groups experienced similar overall levels of legal secondary victimization. All victims who encountered any secondary victimization behaviors reported more post-traumatic stress symptoms. In light of the high prevalence rates, the researchers recommended that the VA expand services such as the Women Veterans’ Comprehensive Health Centers to create environments where women can receive respectful and appropriate treatment.
Chen, Y., & Ullman, S.E. (2010). Women’s reporting of sexual and physical assault to police in the National Violence Against Women survey. Violence Against Women, 16, 262-279.
This study used 874 sexual assault and 1,376 physical assault cases from the National Violence Against Women Survey to examine factors that may affect rape and physical assault reporting. Findings indicated that victim reporting for physical assault was twice that of sexual assault. Approximately 75% of all assaults were unreported, 18% reported by victims, and 7% reported by third parties. Assault characteristics that increased likelihood of reporting included: attack by a stranger, perceived life threat, weapon use, victim injury, and if the victim was unsure if the perpetrator used substances. Training for criminal justice officials and service providers should include information about how all victims who report assault should be treated justly and with dignity and should be informed that rape is a crime even if perpetrated by a non-stranger, without weapons and physical force or injury.
Analysis lacked information about post assault variables such as psychological symptoms and if victims received help from others that could have influenced reporting.
Clay-Warner, J., & Burt, C. H. (2005). Rape reporting after reforms: Have times really changed? Violence Against Women, 11, 150-176.
The authors review the current literature on rape reform legislation, changes in reporting behaviors, and factors impacting the reporting of rape. In this study, analyses of data collected from the National Violence Against Women (NVAW) Survey demonstrated that, although rapes committed post-1990 are more likely to have been reported than those committed prior to 1974, despite legislative reforms in this domain simple rapes are under-reported in comparison to aggravated rapes.
Connop, V., & Petrak, J. (2004). The impact of sexual assault on heterosexual couples. Sexual & Relationship Therapy, 19, 29-38.
The purpose of this study was to examine how male partners react to their partner’s sexual assault and what happens to the couples’ interactions. Participants were recruited through a sexual assault clinic and through press advertisements. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 6 males whose previous or current partners had been sexually assaulted and with 3 females who had been sexually assaulted and had disclosed their assault to their partners. Interviews revealed that 8 of the 9 participants had a partner who had experienced acquaintance rape – or, in the case of the female participants, had been the victim of acquaintance rape. In analyzing the interviews, four themes were identified: (a) the male partner’s role in providing support, (b) communication, (c) anger and blame, and (d) the impact of the assault on the sexual relationship. Many of the male participants indicated that they felt they should put their partner’s needs first and felt exhausted by their role in supporting their partner. Men also revealed a common assumption relating to socio-cultural scripts concerning heterosexual relationships; namely, the idea that they ought to protect their women. Relationship disturbances and communication problems were also reported to have increased in the aftermath of the assault. While at times the men enunciated rape myths, they could not be categorized either as viewing the rape as a sexual act or as a violent act (as the prior research study had indicated). A final issue noted by participants was how the sexual assault increased their difficulty in performing and enjoying sexual activity. Suggested implications of the findings for service provision include the benefit of couple-based counseling and counseling to support male partners’ support needs and psychosexual issues.
Hanson, R., Kievit, L., Saunders, B., Smith, D., Kilpatrick, D., Resnick, H., & Ruggiero, K. (2003). Correlates of adolescent reports of sexual assault: Findings from the National Survey of Adolescents. Child Maltreatment, 8, 261-272.
Another purpose of this study was to determine whether correlates of sexual abuse disclosure differed by gender and race/ethnicity. Data from 4,023 adolescents was obtained through a national probability telephone survey. Measures included penetration and nonpenetration sexual assault, relationship to the perpetrator, degree of life threat, physical injury, victim substance use, disclosure of sexual assault to anyone, and knowledge of any formal reports made regarding the sexual assault. Results indicated that 8.1% of respondent adolescents had experienced a sexual assault. Regarding disclosure, about two thirds of the victims reported that they had told someone else about the sexual assault and about one third of these instances had also been formally reported. For all adolescent victims, use of substances did not reduce the likelihood of disclosure, and victims assaulted by a relative were the most likely to disclose. Girls and European Americans were more likely to disclose than boys and African Americans, respectively. However, among European Americans, gender did not influence disclosure. On the other hand, African American females were 7 times more likely to disclose than African American males were. Also, for girls and European Americans only, sustaining an injury during the sexual assault reduced the likelihood of disclosure. While, for African Americans penetration assault was associated with disclosure, life threat was associated with disclosure for European Americans. Due to their low rates of disclosure, these results indicate that careful assessment of sexual assault among African American children and boys may be particularly important. Additional research investigating correlates of sexual assault for other ethnic groups (e.g., Asians, Hispanics, and Native Americans) is also suggested.
Ilies, R., Hauserman, N., Schwochau, S., & Stibal, J. (2003). Reported incidence rates of work-related sexual harassment in the United States: Using meta-analysis to explain reported rate disparities. Personnel Psychology, 56, 607-631.
Researchers investigated the extent of sexual harassment, as measured by direct query and behavioral experiences, as well as the extent of the difference in incidence, as estimated by the use of these two sampling methods. Yet another auxiliary goal for researchers involved comparing possible differences between convenience and probability samples. Lastly, researchers hypothesized that structured bureaucratic organizations would tend to have more sexual harassment than organizations that are not as hierarchical. Results revealed that measures focused on assessing sexual harassment through direct questioning, combined with probability sampling, led to considerably lower estimates of sexual harassment incidence when compared to convenience sampling and measures using questionnaires that listed behaviors believed to constitute sexual harassment. Furthermore, findings suggest differences in reported incidence based on work location, with academia averaging the lowest on direct query sexual harassment while military samples averaged the highest. By combining multiple studies, researchers hope to further expand on research pertaining to sexual harassment.
McFarlane, J., Malecha, A., Watson, K., Gist, J., Batten, E., Hall, I. et al. (2005). Intimate partner sexual assault against women: Frequency, health consequences, and treatment outcomes. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 105, 99-108.
Women who had requested orders of protection against abusive partners participated in this descriptive study (N=148). Sixty-eight percent (n=100) reported being sexually assaulted at least once by their partner. Women who were sexually assaulted multiple times reported significantly higher levels of gynecologic problems, including sexually transmitted diseases, than non-sexually assaulted women. Higher PTSD scores were found in women who were sexually assaulted than among those who were only physically assaulted. For either type of assault Latina/Hispanic women had higher PTSD scores than African American or White women. Women were less likely to be reassaulted if they told someone about the assault, contacted police, applied for protection orders, or received medical care. The researchers recommend the adoption of cooperative models that increase victims’ ability to access justice and medical services.
Participants were recruited from a group of women who had applied for protective orders, and may differ from women who do not seek assistance from the justice system. The study relied on self-reports, which are subject to recall errors and omissions.
Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Resnick, H. S., McCauley, J. L., Amstadter, A. B., Kilpatrick, D., G., & Fuggiero, K. J. (2011). Is reporting rape on the rise? A comparison of women with reported versus unreported rape experiences in the National Women’s Study-Replication. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 807-832.
This study examined the prevalence of rape reported to law enforcement in a national sample of 3,001 women ages 18-76 who were interviewed by telephone in 2006. Out of the 526 (18%) women who disclosed having a history of rape, 16% reported their most recent/only rape to law enforcement which is consistent with previous studies from the 1990s. Findings showed that there are several predictors of reporting rape to law enforcement. Women with a college degree were less likely than women in some high school education to report their rape. Reporting rape to law enforcement was more likely if the participant cited peritraumatic fear (fear during trauma), being raped by a stranger, and if the rape occurred after 1980. Several concerns about reporting rape included being blamed, and having family members or others find out about the rape which was also consistent with the National Women’s Study conducted in 1992. Fear of reprisal from the offender was reported as the most common reason (68%) for not reporting the rape to police.
Women who did not have landline phone were excluded from this study.