Researchers in this qualitative study used a series of focus groups with Spanish-speaking Latinas (n=65, 18-60 years old) from different educational, immigration, and generational backgrounds to determine how their cultural beliefs affected Latinas’ ability to identify and disclose occurrences of sexual assault and intimate partner violence. Ten interviews were conducted with university students, church groups, survivors of rape and domestic violence and community organizations. Cultural influences affecting disclosure of rape, differences in cultural influences between the United States and Latin America, and differences between their own view and the views of others were topics of the focus group. Lack of community resources, familism (placing the well-being of the family over the well-being of the individual), and the belief that it is taboo to talk about sex and rape were the most frequent responses for the reason that Latinas did not disclose incidences of rape. Fear of violence, gender-role ideologies, respect for authority figures, and traditional beliefs about marriage were other perceived cultural influences that contributed to the low disclosure rates amongst Latinas.
These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on original papers published within the last 6 years. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona. To conduct an individual search or locate older articles use the Search Summary Database which includes over 600 articles related to sexual violence.
Community Attitudes & Responses
Ahrens, C. E., Rios-Mandel, L. C., Isas, L., & del Carmen Lopez, M. (2010). Talking about interpersonal violence: Cultural influences on Latinas’ identification and disclosure of sexual assault and intimate partner violence. Psychological Trauma, 2, 284-295.
Although researchers paid special attention to selecting focus group participants from different backgrounds, they were unable to analyze how common themes differed between the groups.
Banyard, V. L. (2008). Measurement and correlates of prosocial bystander behavior: The case of interpersonal violence. Violence and Victims, 23, 89-97.
The exploratory study examined the effects of gender and specific personality characteristics on bystander attitudes and behaviors. The study discusses the development of measures of bystander attitudes and behaviors and includes preliminary analyses of the correlates of bystander behaviors among a sample of 389 undergraduate students. Results were consistent with previous findings in that prosocial behaviors were higher among individuals with greater knowledge of sexual violence. Those who perceived higher effectiveness as a bystander were more willing to practice prosocial behaviors, and reported a greater number of actual behaviors.
The behaviors, attitudes, and consequences of bystanders may vary by social context
Brown, A. L., & Messman-Moore, T. L. (2010). Personal and perceived peer attitudes supporting sexual aggression as predictors of male college students’ willingness to intervene against sexual aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 503-517.
The purpose of this study was to examine how personal attitudes and perceived peer attitudes about sexual aggression predicted college men’s willingness to intervene against sexual assault. Participants included 395 students from a medium-sized university in the Midwest. Findings indicated that perceived peer norms regarding sexual aggression were more relevant to men’s willingness to intervene against sexual aggression than personal attitudes supporting sexual aggression. Overall, men higher in both personal support and perceived peer support for sexual aggression reported less willingness to intervene. Sexual assault prevention programs may be more successful if the topic of bystander intervention is presented in the context of a discussion about sexual violence norms, not just personal beliefs about sexual violence.
The sample only included males enrolled in college so results may not be generalizable to other populations of men. Support for sexual aggression and willingness to intervene questionnaires have not yet been validated.
Brown, A. L., & Testa, M. (2008). Social influences on judgments of rape victims: The role of the negative and positive social reactions of others. Sex Roles, 58, 490-500.
This study investigated how judgments about rape victims may be influenced by social reactions of others and varies by type of rape and gender. Results were based on reports from 110 college students and showed exposure to negative social reactions decreased emotional support, perpetrator blame and sympathy and support to victim. Negative reactions were associated with negative judgment but positive reactions had no effect.
The study did not indicate if one or a combination of negative reactions may influence negative social reactions.
Brown, C. (2008). Gender-role implications on same-sex intimate partner abuse. Journal of Family Violence, 23, 457-462.
The paper explores the effects that gender role socialization and heterosexism have on same-sex abusive relationships and stigma and barriers to reporting abuse. It summarizes similarities and differences of heterosexual and same-sex couples. A framework for professionals and issues created by minority stress are also discussed.
Most of the literature reviewed focuses on lesbian couples due to the fact there is little literature regarding IPV among gay men.
Hart, T. C., & Miethe, T. D. (2008). Exploring bystander presence and intervention in nonfatal violent victimization: When does helping really hurt? Violence and Victims, 23, 637-651.
The purpose of this study was to identify the situational contexts in which bystanders are present during a violent crimes and the prevalence of helping and hurting responses to them. Data for this study were taken from National Crime Victimization Surveys conducted from 1995 through 2004. Findings indicated that it was common that bystanders were present during physical assaults in public locations. Their presence was less likely during sexual assaults and rape in private locations. Bystanders are more likely to help than hurt the situation during a sexual assault when a weapon is not present. Overall, some situations are related to a high level of helping responses while others are not. Some situations resulted in more damaging outcomes for the victims.
The data did not include violent crimes that were stopped by the presence or actions of a bystander and did not include information on the role or type of help the bystander offered.
McMahon, S., & Dick, A. (2011). “Being in a room with like-minded men”: An exploratory study of men’s participation in a bystander intervention program to prevent intimate partner violence. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 19, 3-18.
This study examined the outcomes and process of a pilot bystander education program among 41 men from a northeast urban community. The study utilized both qualitative and quantitative methods: a post-test survey (n=41) and individual interviews 6-months after the training (n=8). The curricula wad developed by experts in the IPV field and produced by Men Can Stop Rape. All trainings were co-led by a male and female facilitator. Results of the survey indicated a positive impact on bystander knowledge and behaviors; however, those who knew a survivor of abuse were less willing to intervene as a bystander. All 8 men interviewed reported that they did not learn new information from the training and did not report attitude changes about intimate partner violence or sexism based on the training. Men reported that the most useful part of the training was talking with other men about IPV. Bystander education programs should be flexible and creative in approaches, consider small group formats, and provide specific definitions of a bystander and skill development.
A majority of the men had previous knowledge about intimate partner violence, which made it difficult to determine how much information was learned from the training.
McMahon, S., Postmus, J. L., & Koenick, R. A. (2011). Conceptualizing the engaging bystander approach to sexual violence prevention on college campuses. Research in Brief, 52, 115-130.
This study examined how the Engaging Bystander Approach (EBA) may be used for primary prevention of sexual violence on college campuses. This study was conducted among 951 first-year students at a large, northeastern public university. The Bystander Attitude Scale (BAS) and the Bystander Behavior Scale (BBS) were both modified to better reflect the experiences of college students and to measure primary prevention and less overt acts of sexual violence. Findings of the BAS-Revised indicated that females, students with no intention of joining a fraternity/sorority, and those who were not high school athletes were more willing to intervene. Findings on the BBS-Revised indicated that females and students who knew a survivor of sexual assault were more likely to engage in positive bystander behaviors. Previous rape education did not generate significant differences in bystander attitudes and behaviors. The concept of EBA and the continuum of violence may not be understood by all students. Prevention programs should discuss the continuum of violence and clearly describe how behaviors are linked and contribute to sexual violence.
The instruments modified for this particular study may not be relevant to all college communities.
Reed, E., Silverman, J. G., Raj, A., Decker, M. R., & Miller, E. (2011). Male perpetration of teen dating violence: Associations with neighborhood violence involvement, gender attitudes, and perceived peer and neighborhood norms. Journal of Urban Health, 88, 226-239.
This study examined whether neighborhood violence, beliefs in traditional gender norms, and perceived peer and neighborhood norms related to violence had an effect on the likelihood of male perpetration of teen dating violence (TDV). Adolescent males ages 14-20 were recruited from urban health care clinics in Boston to participate in the study. The sample included 275 adolescent males who reported having a female dating partner and a subsample of 134 from the 275 who reported having sex with a female partner. Results indicated that boys who were participated in neighborhood violence were more likely to report TDV perpetration. Boys who believed in traditional gender norms, perceived peers as perpetrating TDV, and those who perceived violent activity in their neighborhood were more likely to perpetrate TDV themselves. For all variables (i.e. participation in neighborhood violence, gender norm beliefs and perceived peer and neighborhood norms), TDV perpetration was more likely in boys who reported having sex with a female partner.
Recruitment for this study was only in clinics that served lower income urban populations and should not be generalized to the other populations.
Sleath, E. & Bull, R. (2009). Male rape victim and perpetrator blaming. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, online.
One hundred sixteen male and female undergraduate participants were presented with scenarios online in which the level of rape myths and the type of rape were manipulated. Victim blame, perpetrator blame, belief in a just world, sex-role egalitarian beliefs, and male rape myth acceptance were examined. Male rape acceptance was found to be a predictor of victim blaming. Acquaintance rape victims were blamed more than victims of stranger rape. Belief in a just world was not a predictor of perpetrator or victim blaming. Sex-role egalitarian beliefs predicted perpetrator blaming but not victim blaming. The study highlighted the importance of understanding how rape myths may influence the level of blame directed towards the victim and perpetrator. Myth acceptance may affect jury decisions and police officers’ interactions with victims and perpetrators.
The sexual orientation of male victims was not presented in the scenarios. Sexual orientation may influence level of blame assigned to victim or perpetrator.
Todahl, J. L., Linville, D., Bustin, A., Wheeler, J., & Gau, J. (2009). Sexual assault support services and community systems. Understanding critical issues and needs in the LGBTQ community. Violence Against Women, 15, 952-976.
This study examined the relationship between community attitudes towards LGBTQ persons and responses toward sexual assault survivors using an on-line survey and 4 focus groups in the Pacific Northwest. Participants (130) were recruited using a listserv of sexual and domestic violence social service activists and providers, sexual violence agency bulletin boards, and 2 organizations that provided services to the LGBTQ community. Findings suggested that sexual violence is not generally discussed in the LGBTQ community in order to protect community from additional discrimination and because of gaps and barriers to services. The authors suggested that LGBTQ friendly practices should be incorporated into mainstream systems and cultural competency training should include same-sex issues.
Findings only reflect opinions of participants, not all issues and needs of community were likely captured in data collection.
Wantland, R. A. (2008). Our brotherhood and your sister: Building anti-rape community in the fraternity. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 36, 57-73.
This case study of the Fraternity Peer Rape Education Program (FPREP), examined men’s perceptions of change within themselves, their interactions, and fraternity community. Ten men participated in the class; only 4 interviews were selected for transcription. Findings suggested that participants: recognized rape-supportive behaviors and challenged those views, and internalized the role of a responder. Relationships with fraternity became strained and changed when they challenged friends and brothers, created a shared sense of partnership and responsibility and disrupted traditional masculine relationships within fraternal community. The author suggested that educators must provide support to those who suffer losses within their communities and empower them to broaden their sense of community, while finding ways that they can stay connected to their fraternity.
Small sample size and selected interviews may have introduced bias.
Yamawaki, N. (2007). Rape perception and the function of ambivalent sexism and gender-role traditionality. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22, 406-423.
At a private university in the Rocky Mountain region, 126 undergraduate males and females were assigned to a stranger or date-rape scenario and asked to complete several surveys to assess the impact that BS, HS, and GRT had on external observer’s rape perceptions and the relationship between ambivalent sexism (AS) and GRT. Three forms of secondary victimization were assessed in the study: minimization of seriousness of rape, blaming the rape victim, and excusing the rapist. The results support previous findings that BS, HS, and GRT significantly influence external observers’ rape perceptions. External observers use different reasons to judge the rape incident, victim, and rapist. Observers minimize rape, blame the victim, and excuse the rapist more in cases of date rape than stranger rape. Those who score higher on HS scale deny victim’s psychological damage, level of violence, and the fact that the incident was rape.
May not be able to generalize results of the study.
Zweig, J., & Burt, M.R. (2007). Predicting women’s perceptions of domestic violence and sexual assault agency helpfulness: What matters to program clients? Violence Against Women, 13, 1149-1178.
Interviews with 1,509 women were conducted to asses if community agency interaction, staff behavior, and combination of services predict helpfulness of domestic violence and sexual assault agencies. Women reported that private non-profit victim service agencies were most helpful when there was positive staff behavior and when they felt a sense of control when working with staff. Increased helpfulness was reported when victim services were perceived to have interacted with the legal system and other community agencies.
Women were only interviewed once and so results do not examine the long-term impact on women’s health and safety.