The purpose of this study was to examine how college men’s rape supportive attitudes are expressed in both intention to commit date rape and perceptions of the risk and rewards of the behavior. Participants included 129 male undergraduates from a university in the eastern United States. Participants were assigned to 1 of 3 conditions, presented with a hypothetical scenario, and asked to consider positive and negative outcomes of the scenario. One significant risk/reward pattern was identified: men who recognize a date rape situation as potentially criminal and yet report potential for continuing romantic or sexual relationships with a woman. Rape myths were more likely to be endorsed by this group and the group did not view the legal consequences as a real risk. To achieve long-term attitudinal and behavioral changes, prevention programs should focus on changing the perceptions of risks and rewards of sexual aggression.
These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on original papers published within the last 6 years. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona. To conduct an individual search or locate older articles use the Search Summary Database which includes over 600 articles related to sexual violence.
Alcohol
Bouffard, L. A., & Bouffard, J. A. (2010). Understanding men’s perceptions of risks and rewards in a date rape scenario. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, (online).
The study did not measure prior sexual aggression which may shape perceptions of risks and rewards.
Brecklin, L. R., & Ullman, S. E. (2010). The roles of victim and offender substance use in sexual assault outcomes. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, (online).
This study examined the impact of victim and offender substance use on sexual assault outcomes among 970 females in a large Midwestern city. Data was obtained from the first wave of a longitudinal study on sexual assault recovery among a community sample. Findings indicated that offender substance use resulted in more victim injuries and more medical attention. Physical force and verbal threats resulted in greater odds of completed rape and injury. Physical resistance by the victim resulted in more injures. Prevention programs should target men and women separately, focus on the role of substance use, offender aggression, and other situational factors.
The sample included women’s reports of the most serious sexual assault experienced, which, may result in more reports of severe assaults than other studies.
Davis, K. C., Norris, J., George, W. H., Martell, J., & Heiman, J. R. (2006). Men’s likelihood of sexual aggression: The influence of alcohol, sexual arousal, and violent pornography. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 581-589.
A total of 84 male social drinkers between 21-45 years old were randomly assigned to a group that received alcohol or a group that did not. Both groups were then asked to read one of two rape scenarios which differed by whether the victim experienced pleasure during the rape. Three factors related to sexual response were measured: alcohol intoxication; belief that intoxicated women were vulnerable to sexual coercion; and a victim’s positive sexual response to rape. The single factor that predicted reporting likelihood of sexual aggression was a high level of sexual arousal. Intoxication and belief in drinking women’s vulnerability were not directly linked to increased aggression, although they were related to arousal. Both sober and intoxicated men reported greater arousal when the victim’s response in the scenario was positive. If any of the factors were present without increased arousal, they were not related to increased aggression.
Testing only two levels of intoxication (sober or drunk), self-report of arousal without physiological measures, and lack of measurement of men’s actual aggressive behavior. The study did not look at how likely men were to report the probability of aggressive sexual behavior if they were not exposed to violent pornography.
Farris, C., Treat, T. A., Viken, R. J., & McFall, R. M. (2008). Sexual coercion and the misperception of sexual intent. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 48-66.
This review article focused on gender differences on the perception of female sexual behaviors and intents, the association between sexual coercion and misperception, situational factors that may increase misperception, and clinical implications. The study concentrated on sexually coercive behavior, between partners, that is not premeditated but purposeful and on men’s ability to distinguish sexual interest from platonic interest. Men were more likely to perceive more sexual intent in a woman’s behavior but this gender difference may be attributed to a small sub-group of males at high risk for sexual coercion or men more supportive of sex-role stereotypes. Some situational factors were correlated with an increase in men’s estimates of women’s sexual intent.
It is difficult to assess perception and interpret observed differences in perception. Most literature assumes that men are prone to perceive sexual intent where it does not exist and that women’s perception of sexual intent of other women is the standard to measure interest.
Fife, R. S., Ebersole, C., Bigatti, S., Lane, K. A., & Brunner Huber, L. R. (2008). Assessment of the relationship of demographic and social factors with intimate partner violence (IPV) among Latinas in Indianapolis. Journal of Women’s Health, 17, 769-775.
One hundred Latinas (76% from Mexico) who attended health fairs, educational sessions, and community health centers were recruited to complete surveys to examine the prevalence, demographic factors, and behaviors associated with IPV. This exploratory, cross-sectional study: measured the prevalence of IPV in the Indianapolis Latino population and examined associations between demographic and other characteristics of IPV. Among the participants, 51% reported some form of IPV. Some of the forms of abuse that were reported were; yelling (38%), being followed (33%), having to ask permission to do things (18%), harassment (18%), and pushing/shoving/slapping (11%). Women who reported IPV, 71% reported 1 to 3 forms of abuse. Alcohol use by the woman or partner was found to be most significantly associated with IPV.
Sample contained a small number of women in one community, who attended public events, and were willing to speak about IPV. The sample also had missing data, only 75% answered all questions. An association does not mean that alcohol was the cause of IPV.
Flack Jr., W. F., Caron, M. L., Leinen, S. J., Breitenbach, K. G., Barber, A. M., Brown, E. N. et al. (2008). "The red zone": Temporal risk for unwanted sex among college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence,23, 1177 - 1196.
There is a popular perception that inexperienced college freshman women are at greatest risk for sexual assault, especially during the first few weeks or months of the fall semester. To test this, the researchers surveyed first-year (n=104) and second- year (n=101) male and female college students about unwanted experiences of sexual contact. Those who had experienced unwanted sex were asked to place the event(s) in one of 7 time periods. Women reported significantly higher rates of unwanted sex than men (44% vs. 7%). Most experiences involved the consumption of alcohol (81%) and almost one-third of the offenders were well-known to their victims (all were students at the university). Relatively more unwanted touching experiences occurred during the last time period—the second year from about one month after the start of school to the middle of October—than any other time. Researchers were told by sorority members that this corresponded to the period called “pledging”, during which young (second-year) women were invited to frequent fraternity parties at which alcohol was consumed.
This study was conducted at a small Eastern liberal arts college. College cultures and activities vary widely, and results of this study might have been different at a campus with different characteristics.
Franklin, C. A. (2010). Physically forced, alcohol-induced, and verbally coercive sexual victimization: Assessing risk factors among university women. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38, 149-159.
This study examined 3 different forms of sexual assault among 185 undergraduate college women from a northwestern university in 2007. The 3 forms of sexual assault included: threats of force and/or force that resulted in completed rape, alcohol-induced sexual assault, and verbal coercion that resulted in unwanted sex. Women who reported verbal coercion that resulted in unwanted sex were more likely to report: delayed risk responses, increased number of sex partners, earlier age of first intercourse, and increased rape myth acceptance. Women who reported experiencing alcohol-induced sexual assault were more likely to report: risky sexual practices, increased number of sex partners, and early age of first intercourse. Women who reported force and/or threats of force that resulted in completed rape reported: increased number of sex partners and younger age of first intercourse. Rape prevention strategies used on college campuses should be tailored to focus on specific risks associated with each type of sexual victimization.
The socio-economic status used was limited: 3 items measured verbal coercion, 3 items assessed completed rape, and only 1 item assessed alcohol-induced sexual assault.
Kaysen, D., Neighbors, C., Martell, J., Fossos, N. & Larimer, M. (2006). Incapacitated rape and alcohol abuse. Addictive Behaviors, 31, 1820-1832.
Male and female students at three colleges completed questionnaires about alcohol use at three time points over three years. Incapacitated rape was assessed with the question, “have you ever been pressured or forced to have sex with someone because you were too drunk to prevent it?” More women than men reported ever having experienced incapacitated sexual assault (10.0% vs. 5.7%). Students who drank the most and had the most self-reported alcohol-related problems were more likely to experience incapacitated sexual assault. The relationship was cyclical: after sexual assault, students drank more and had more alcohol-related problems. Women who had never experienced incapacitated rape and who were not raped during the study period drank less than other students. Results from the study indicated that programs to discourage high-risk drinking among college students may help reduce incidence of sexual assault. The researchers suggested that early intervention following sexual assault may help prevent later increases in alcohol use and alcohol-related problems.
Littleton, H., Axsom, D., & Grills-Taquechel, A. (2009). Sexual assault victim’s acknowledgement status and revictimization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 34-42.
The purpose of this study was to compare revictimization risk behaviors among women who labeled an experience as rape or victimization (acknowledged) with those who did not (unacknowledged). Data was collected from 334 women from 3 southeastern universities using an online survey. A 6-month follow-up survey was completed by 105 of the participants. Results indicated that unacknowledged assaults were less violent and less likely involved physical force and threats. Unacknowledged victims were more likely to be binge drinking at the time of the assault and more likely to continue a relationship with the perpetrator following the assault. Significant group differences were found only in reports of attempted rape at the follow-up period. Future research should examine how a victim’s acknowledgment status and risk behaviors, specifically alcohol use, may impact sexual revictimization.
Demographic diversity between groups may have attributed to differences in revictimization rates.
Livingston, J. A., Hequembourg, M. T., & VanZile-Tamsen, C. (2007). Unique aspects of adolescent sexual victimization experiences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 331-343.
Between 2000 and 2002 in Erie County, New York in-person interviews were conducted with 1,014 women between the ages of 18 and 30 to investigate factors that may lead to an increased vulnerability to sexual aggression during adolescence. Of the 1,014 women interviewed, women who indicated sexual victimization since age 14, 319 completed a brief event-based interview. The study used quantitative and qualitative methods to pursue two goals: identify contexts in which adolescent girls experience sexual aggression and to identify factors within those contexts that may contribute to vulnerability. The findings indicated that the following were the most common developmental influences: inexperience with sex and dating, social and relationship status concerns, and powerlessness. Sexual victimization was most often experienced in the context of intimate relationships (40%). The second most common was in the context of social gatherings (36%), in which most incidents involved substance use by the perpetrator (82%), the victim (76%), or both.
Sample included retrospective reports from women in one community that had telephones in their homes.
McCauley, J. L., Ruggiero, K. J., Resnick, H. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2010). Incapacitated, forcible, and drug/alcohol-facilitated rape in relation to binge drinking, marijuana use, and illicit drug use: A national survey. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23, 132-140.
This study examined relationships between substance abuse and forcible, incapacitated, and drug/alcohol-facilitated rape among 1,998 women between 18 and 34 years old. This study is based on a large national household telephone survey of women in the United States. Findings indicated that 23% of women reported a lifetime experience of rape (forcible 19%, drug/alcohol-facilitated 3%, & incapacitated 5%). Women who experienced incapacitated rape were more likely to report past year binge-drinking and those who reported drug/alcohol-facilitated rape were more likely to report past year marijuana and illicit drug use. Sexual violence risk reduction programs may be more effective if binge drinking interventions were integrated.
The order of onset of substance abuse and a history of rape was not assessed; a causal relationship cannot be shown.
Mumford, E. A., Kelley-Baker, T., & Romano, E. Sexual assault histories and evening drinking among young American men in a high-risk drinking environment. Journal of Sex Research, 46, 1-9.
This study examined history of sexual assault perpetration as a predictor of drinking among 650 males. Between 2006 and 2008 groups of young American men traveling from San Diego, California to Tijuana, Mexico were randomly surveyed during their return to the US. Sexual assault histories and blood alcohol concentration were measured. Results indicated sexual assault histories were associated with increased drinking and greater likelihood of binge drinking. Those with a history of sexual coercion drank more while in Tijuana. Authors suggested that prevention efforts should target different audiences to reduce victimization in environments where there is increased alcohol use.
This study included groups crossing the US-Mexico border and may not be generalizable to all college-aged populations.
Nguyen, H. V., Kaysen, D., Dillworth, T. M., Brajcich, M., & Larimer, M. E. (2010). Incapacitated rape and alcohol use in White and Asian American College Women. Violence Against Women, 16, 919-933.
This study examined ethnicity as a moderator of the relationship between incapacitated rape (IR) and outcomes of alcohol use among 5,565 Asian and White female college students. Findings indicated a significant association between ethnicity and sexual assault for alcohol related consequences and consumption. Among women who had not experienced IR, Asian women reported fewer consequences of alcohol use and lower levels of consumption than White women. When Asian and White women consumed similar amounts of alcohol, Asian women experienced more consequences of alcohol than White women. Prevention and treatment programs should focus on cultural attitudes about sexual assault, adaptive help-seeking behaviors, social support, and coping strategies. Prevention programs should focus on protective behavioral strategies to reduce high risk drinking.
This study focused on college-aged Asian and White women and may not be generalizable to other age groups. It did not examine subgroups of Asian women.
Novik, M. G., Howard, D. E., & Boekeloo, B. O. (2010). Drinking motivations and experiences of unwanted sexual advances among undergraduate students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, DOI: 10.1177/0886260510362884.
This study examined the association between drinking motivations and experiences with unwanted sexual advances among 289 undergraduates from a mid-Atlantic public university. This study was part of a larger project, Peers as Family: Preventing Problem Drinking. An on-line survey was administered to students living in residence halls during the 2007 spring semester. Findings indicated that 15.6% of the sample experienced unwanted sexual advances and females were 2 times as likely as males to report unwanted sexual advances. Students reported that they drank to maintain their image in social situations. Drinking motivations may place individuals in situations where their or someone else’s alcohol use places them at risk for unwanted sexual advances. Prevention programs should include strategies for staying safe in social drinking situations, address factors that motivate students to consume alcohol, build refusal skills, and encourage moderate alcohol consumption.
Only one question in the survey measured the outcome unwanted sexual advances.
Parkhill, M. R. & Abbey, A. (2008). Does alcohol contribute to the confluence model of sexual assault perpetration? Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, 529-554.
This study expanded on past research on the Confluence Model of Sexual Assault Perpetration by examining how alcohol use may contribute to men’s likelihood of perpetrating sexual assault. Two key components of the Confluence Model were tested: impersonal sex and hostile masculinity. The sample consisted of 365 men at an urban university who were at least 21 years old, drank alcohol, and had heterosexual dating experiences within the past year. The survey measured delinquency, drinking behaviors and expectancies, impersonal sex, hostile masculinity, situational alcohol consumption, and sexual assault perpetration. At least one sexually aggressive act (making a woman have sex who clearly did not consent or who was unable to consent) was reported by 58% of the men, 48% perpetrated only when sober, 27% only when intoxicated, and 25% had perpetrated both when sober and intoxicated.
The confluence model developed for research with college students may not be generalizable to other community samples.
Parkhill, M. R., Abbey, A., & Jacques-Tiura, A. (2009). How do sexual assault characteristics vary as a function of perpetrators level of intoxication? Addictive Behaviors, 34, 331-333.
Participants were 107 men who indicated that they used coercive strategies to force different types of sex on women since the age of 14. Alcohol consumption, sexual assault perpetration, and men’s perceptions of one assault were examined. Men identified as heavy drinking perpetrators were more likely to perceive the incident as serious, attributed responsibility to themselves, and reported that they learned something from the incident. Results indicated that alcohol may provide a perpetrator an excuse for their behaviors. Heavy drinking perpetrators misperceived sexual intentions for longer periods of time before assault, used more isolating and controlling behaviors during interactions with victims, used more physical force, and perpetrated more severe assaults. Only 4% of perpetrators reported that they did not know the victim. Implications for practice included that sexual assault prevention programs should discuss the effects that alcohol has on cognitive distortions, perceptions of women, and use of aggression.
The sample was largely African American (57%) and 40% were classified as heavy drinkers.
Schad, M. M., Szwedo, D. E., Antonishak, J., Hare, A., & Allen, J. P. (2007). The broader context of relational aggression in adolescent romantic relationships: Predictions from peer pressure and links to psychosocial functioning. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 346-358.
Relational aggression can be defined as an attempt to inflict harm on another person through manipulation or by damaging other social relationships by indirect or covert means (e.g., gossiping, lies, betrayal, isolation). It can occur in peer relationships as well as intimate relationships. This study looked at the association between experiencing relational aggression in best friend relationships and peer groups during adolescence and perpetrating or being a victim of relational aggression in later romantic relationships. Observational and written data was collected from a group of 15-year-olds (n=97) and their best friends; in the second wave of data collection three years later, target youth and their romantic partners completed written questionnaires. Youth were more likely to exhibit relational aggression in future romantic relationships if their best friends and peer groups used pressuring behaviors. Those who had experienced peer pressure from their social groups were also more likely to report feeling victimized by relational aggression in later romantic relationships. Higher levels of alcohol use and depression were reported among youth in romantic relationships characterized by relational aggression.
The study used a small sample, and some of the measurements need to be replicated and validated. The links between peer pressure, relational violence, alcohol use, and depression should be further investigated.
Ullman, S. E., & Najdowski, C. J. (2010). Understanding alcohol-related sexual assaults: Characteristics and consequences. Violence and Victims, 25, 29-44.
This study examined characteristics of sexual assault and post-assault experienced among 969 female victims in the Chicago metropolitan area. Characteristics of the perpetrator and the role alcohol played in the assault were also examined. Findings indicated that alcohol-related assaults were more severe, resulted in more physical injuries, and involved multiple perpetrators. Among assaults in which only the perpetrator was drinking, victims reported more fear for their lives, more post-assault distress, use of more assertive resistance strategies, and less self-blame compared to non-alcohol related assaults. Women who reported drinking prior to assault reported more self-blame. Authors suggested that victim and perpetrator drinking should be considered when prevention strategies are designed.
Participants included women who answered local newspaper advertisements in the Chicago area and were only questioned about their most serious sexual assault experience.